Figure 1.-

The Holy Roman Empire originated with the coronation of German King Otto as emperor (962). It survived until Francis II under pressure from Napoleon renounced the imperial title (1806). It was the medieval German state it was ruled by several dynasties before the Emperor becoming dominated by the Hapsburgs. The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation became the effective organization of Germany after the Investiture Controversy. It was not, however, an exclusively German political unit. The Empire included over time the Burgundian inheritance (the Carolingian "middle kingdom") and parts of Italy and the Netherlands, which were not German in any ethnic or linguistic sense. Nor were national loyalties and sensibilities nearly as important in Medieval Europe as would be the case in the 19th century after the French Revolution. Certainly Germany was the nucleus of the Empire. The emperors were Germans and might hve built a powerful empire in central Europe that could have dominated Europe. This did not occur although the Hapsburgs came close to it. Instead the possession of non-German possessions served to involve the Empire in foreign quarrels which drained its resources and exacerbated domestic differences. These problems would come to fruition in the Reformation.

Creation

The Holy Roman Empire originated with the coronation of German King Otto as emperor (962). The title of emperor was based on the Roman emperors. The last emperor abdigated (476) as the German tribes over ran the Western Empire. Charlemagne had Pope Leo III crown him as emperor 800). The Carolingians claimed that the Roman Empire had not ended with the empperor's abdication, but only temporarily suspended. Arnulf ( -899) was the last Carolingian to hold the imperial title. Other individuals claimed to be the emperor following Arnulf's death, but they were individuals of limited power and exerted no real authority in Germany. Some of these individuals were King Louis III of Provence and King Berengar I of Italy. Otto as kig of Germany had the power to make the title meaningful.

Ruling Dynasties

There were several dyasties that attempted to rule Germany as Holy Roman emperors. The German kingship and the imperial office, unlike most other European monarchies, were technically elective, but they became essentially hereditary. Eventually the title became dominated by the Austrian Hapsburg dynasty. A hapsburg was first elected emperor (1438). From that time on only one emperor wa not a Hapsburg.

German Nation

The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation became the effective organization of Germany after the Investiture Controversy. The emperors were Germans and might have built a powerful empire in central Europe that could have dominated Europe. This did not occur although the Hapsburgs came close to it. Instead the possession of non-German possessions served to involve the Empire in foreign quarrels which drained its resources and exacerbated domestic differences. These problems would come to fruition in the Reformation.

Political Organization

Otto established the Empire as the domains of the German crown. The political theory that evolved was that the emperor was the secular counterpart of the pope. The pope claimed to be the vicar of God on earth to oversee spiritual matters for Christendom. The Holy Roman emperors claimed to be the temporal ruler of all Christendom which is why it is not the Holy German Empire. Germany if united would have dominated Europe. This would have allowed the Emperors to make good their pretentions. Some emperors wee very powerful, but election to the office and the pope's interference prevented the emperors from creating a unified German state that could dominate Europe. The emperors were accorded diplomatic precedence in Europe. They were from an early period unable to exert control over France, southern Italy, Denmark, Poland, and Hungary. They never had any real control over England, Potugal, Spain (although the Hapsburgs aquired the Spanish crown), and Sweden. And even within German the emperors had difficulty exerting their authority, chalenged by both the papacy and the efforts of the Germn princes to develop soverign states. The German king was elected by the various German princes who became known as electors. To ascend to imperial status Charlemagne and Otto establish the precedence of papal coronation. A German king yet uncrowned by the pope became known as king of the Romans, a kind of emperor-designate (1045). Most German kings became emperor, but not all of them. Some elections were disputed. The papacy with its rising influence began to claim the authority to select the emperor. The conflict with the papacy played a major role in Germany's failure to develop a centalized state dyring the medieval era. The German princes at the diets of Rhense and Frankfurt exerted the authority to choose the emperor without papal interference (1338). Charles IV issued the Golden Bull which reaffirmed the Diets decession to exclude the papacy from the decession process. Charles also established a more standard election process. While the papacy no longer intefered in the selectin process, the emperors continued to be crowned by the pope. The last emperor to be crowned by the pope was Charles V (1530). By this time, Germany was rent by the Reformation and with both Protestant and Catholic electors, a papal coronaton was no longer acceptable. Maximilian I was crowned at Frankfurt (1508) which established a precedent.

Extent

Certainly Germany was the nucleus of the Empire, both Germany and Austria. It was not, however, an exclusively German political entity. The Empire included over time Bohemia and Moravia, the Burgundian inheritance (the Carolingian "middle kingdom"). northern Italy (early emperors were also crowned king of Italy), , the Netherlands (until 1648), and Switzerland. These areas were not German in any ethnic or linguistic sense. Nor were national loyalties and sensibilities nearly as important in Medieval Europe as would be the case in the 19th century after the French Revolution. There were two mjor complications. Some countries, epecially Hungary) were ruled by the Hapsburg emperors, but were outside the Empire as it came to be established. Other provinces (Flanders, Pomerania, Schleswig, and Holstein) were within the Empire but were ruled by foreign non-German princes. These princes legally held their territory in fief from the emperor and took part in the imperial diet as electors. This is of more than historical importance. German nationalists in the 19th century, especially after unification saw the lands that had been within the Empire (referred to as the First Reich) as areas which should be included within a united German state. This brought conflict with France after Germany seized Alsace-Loraine in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Some German nationalists wanted Germany to acquire territory of the old Holy Roman Empire that were independent states (the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Switzerland). Other wanted areas that were occupied by non-Germans (including areas of Poland and Czechoslovakia). The NAZIs which occupied these areas were to persue genocidal policies toward the non-Germans.

The Protestant Reformation

The reformtion began in Germany. This was no accident. The Reformation was only partially a religious movement. It was also a German nationalist movement, alienated from a foreign-dominated church. The Reformation would have had difficulty arising in othr countries with more centralized regimes. Some German princes, desiring to establish their independemce and soverignity, used the Reformation to weaken the authority of the emperor. The Holy Roman Empire was not a centralized state before the Reformation. After the Reformation it was weakened even further. The irony is that it was the Papacy that played a major role in weaking te imperial regime and preventing the Holy Roman Empire from coalesing into a powerful, centralized state. It was the relatively weak emperor that was unable to prevent the Reformation and the split in Western Christendom.

Termination (1806)

The Holy Roman Empire survived until the 19th century Napoleonic Wars. With the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia and Austria were defeated by French armies. Sme of Napoleon's great victories were fought and won in Germany. This gave Napoleon the ability to reorganize the Empire with the Treaty of Lunéville (1801). The diet took further action (1803). The reorganization reduced the number of states and principlities. The major states were enlrged by asorbing many medieval principlities and ecclesiastical estates. Holy Roman Emperor Francis II had led the coalitions againston as was about to become his father in law. He assumed a new title, Francis I, emperor of Austria (1804). Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine which include large areas of the Empire. Francis renounced his title as Holy Roman Emperor (1806).

German Confederation (1815-66)

After the defeat of Napoleon. the Congress of Vienna reinstitued consevative monarchial rule in Europe. The Empire was not restored. Instead a new German Confederation was created. The Confederation included two powerful German states (Austria and Prussia) and a number of smaller states. The qestion became who would unify Germany. The Revolutions of 1848 almost resulted in the creation of a liberal unifid Germany. When ths failed the question became whether Prussia or Austria would unify Germany. This was settled by the Austro-Prussian or German Civil War (1866). The War also ended the German Confederation. A few years later, the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) resulted in the unification of German under the Prussian crown.