Figure 1.--Young people throughout the 20th century played a major role in the events that marked China's tumultous history. China today is experiencing great economic success. The central question is if a truly modern economy is possible without political liberalization including free expression and the rule of law.

China has had a long and turbulent history. An understanding of the basic events and movements in Chinese history is necessary to understand the fashion trends. Fashion also reflected those trends. Interestingly because of the long tradition of writing in China and Chinese schoolarship as well as continuity over long periods, more is known about early Chinese history than many comparable eras in the West. The First Emperor, Fu Hsi, is often seen to be the founder of Chinese civiization and social order around 3000 BC. Little is known about many early emperors, but others are known in some detail. In many ways it was the Mongols who brought China into the modern era. The Ming overthrew the Mongols but were in turn replaced by another northern tribe, the Manchu. European imperlism preyed upon the decaying Manchy regime in the 19th century, forcong a number of unequal treaties on China. The British fought the Opium Wars to force China to accept opium. The British and other Europeans as well as the Japanese carved out coastal enclaves. A Republic was formed under Dr. Sun Yat-sen determined to reform China and build a government that could resist foreign incursions(1911). This set in motion a struggle for power among warlords, Nationalists and Communists. Chang Kai-shek and the nationalists emerged victorious. The Communists were not completely defeated, but after the Long March established themselves in northwestern China. Then the Jpanese attacked, first in Manchuria (1931) and then from bases in Manchuria the Japanese invaded China proper (1937). In many waysthis can be seen as the beginning of World War II. China fought Japan alone until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and British installations (1941) brought America and Britain into the War. China suffered terribly in the War. Much of the country and the major cities were occupied by the Japanese, but despite the commitment of most of the Imperial Army, the Japanese were unable to defeat the Nationalists who retired west to remote Chunking. These cities were occupied by Japan after. China was only liberated after the surrender of Japan (1945). Japan's defeat set in motion a renewed civil war between the Nationalists and Communists. The Communists emerged victorious and established the People's Republic (1948-49). Chang's Nationalists retired to Taiwan. HBC is collecting information on several important periods in Chinese history. We are just beginning to collect some basic historical data.

Ancient China

China is one of the oldest civilizations on earth. Civilization appeared in China about 3,000 BC in the Yellow River valley. The eraly emperors are legendary figures. The founder of Chinese social order was Fu Hsi. Organized agriculture appears about 2737 BC under Shen Nung. Many of the invention of Chinese cultural life occur under the Yellow Emperors (2704-2585 BC) which many scholars consider the golden age of China. They were followed by the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BC) who are remembered for their cruelty. They were followed by the Chou Dynasty which is regarded as the classical period of Chinese history. Aguculture became universal and the arts flirished. The great sages including Confucius, Lao-tse, Mencius, abd Mo Ti appeared. The feudal system developed in China at this time. Despite the humanitarian doctrines of these sages, a devestaing series of feudal wars marched the last years of the Chou. They were replaced by te Ch'in Dynasty. The Ch'in restored order, abolished the feydal system, and drove Hun Tartars back into the Asiatic desert. They also began construction of the Great Wall. The Empire was extended south of the Yangtze valley. Shih Huang Ti is sometimes regaded as the "First Emperor". To symbolize a break with the past, Shih ordered the burning of all but practical books on medicine and agriculture--for which he is generally held in repriach by Chinese scholars. The first Han emperor seized power about 202 BC. The Han were the last emperors of Ancient China and ruled until 220 AD. The Mongul hordees were again driven back to Centtal Asia and Mongolia was added to thee Empire. Overland trade routes, chiefly in silks, were established with the West. Competitive examinations in the civil service were adopted. Chinese writing was standarized and printing invented. Buddhism was introduced from India, the first major foreign influence on China.

Medieval Dynasties

The fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 AD was similar in many ways to the fall of the Roman Empire in the West. They were not replaced by strong dynasty, many lasted only beief periods. The collapse of Han rule resulted in almost four centuries of warload rule. China split into three kingsdoms (Wei, Shu, and Wu), but the idea of cultural unity persisted. Chinese to this day still refer to themselves as the "sons of Han". The short lived Shu Dynasty (589-618 AD) finally unified China again. They were replaced by tye T'ang Dynasty (618-907 AD) underwhom China regained much of its former power. The writ of the T'ang Emperors extend from the Caspian to the Pacific. Five feeble, short-lived dynasties repalaced the T'ang weakened by corruption and rebellion. They were replaced by the Sung Dynasty (960-1280-AD). The Sung are sometimes described as the Augustine Age of China. Writing and printing flourished and libraries appeared.

The Mongols

Genghis Khan, a Mongol leader from central Asia, overran northern China in the 12th century. The Mongols played an enormously important role in world history. Although a relatively small population, the Mongols established the most extensive empire in histoiry, streaching from Korea to Eastern Europe. Only the Japanese suceessfully defied the Mongols. The Mongols also conquered and influenced many of the major world powers, China, Russia, Persia, amd India. The Mongols defeated the Poles and were set to move into Western Europe. Only the death of their great war leader, Geghis Khan prevented this.

The Mongols/Yuan (1280-1368)

Genghis' grandson, Kublai Khan (1280-94), established the Mongol (Yuan) dynasty in China. He established the largest empire ever created. His control reached from the Dnieper River in Russia to the Pacific Ocean and from the Arctic Ocean to the Straits of Malacca. Under the Mongols, law was codified and literature and public works flourished. For a brirf period there was commerce with Italy which was poised to enter the Reanaissance. Marco Polo and his two uncles then lived in the empire, in the service of the Khan, used paper money and passports, and traveled on the Grand Canal in China, at a time when paper money, passports, and canals were un-known in Europe. Commerce with the Arabs and Persians was continuous, and the highway into Europe was maintained until the Mongols in Central Asia embraced Islam. The Mongol dynasty, one of various foreign dynasties of China, ended in 1368, when the Mongol homeland withdrew obedience to a Mongol emperor at the distant court of Peking whom they had come to think of as Chunese in all but name and lacking in virility. A peasant revolt in the Yangtze valley further weakened the state.

The Ming (1368-1644)

The Ming were the last native Chinese imperial line. The founder, a former Buddhist priest, rose to power in a national reaction which followed the period of disorder due to the disintegration of the Mongol Empire under the successors of Kublai Khan. Under Ming rule Portuguese and Spanish tradees finally managed to round Africa and reach Asia by sea. These Europeans settled in various ports. Tongking (Tonkin) and Cochin China were added to the empire in the south, while in the north China was continually harrassed by the Tartars.

The Machus/Qing (1644-1911)

The Ming in 1643 employed the warlike Manchus from the northeast to defend China from the Central Asian Tatars. A Manchu prince established himself in Peking, and, in 1644, on the suicide of the last Ming emperor, took the imperial throne, founding the last royal dynasty of China. The first Manchu emperor, Shunzhi, only 1 year after bevoming emperor in 1645 ordered that pigtails (queues) should be worn in the style of the Manchu. This was seen as a sign of submission to Manchu rule. [Chang] The enforced adoption by the Chinese of the plaited queue of the Manchus at first produced friction between the two peoples, but this gradually disappeared, and Manchus and Chinese assumed harmonious relations, but the Manchus remained a destinct warrior and official class. The huge Chinese population and culture gradually engulfed the numerically small invaders who adopted Chinese language and culture. The Manchus conqured Mongolia and ruled Manchuria. The gratest Manch emperor was K'ang Hsi (1662-1722). He conquered Tibet. He promoted sciemce and the arts. The Central Asian states of Turkestan and Kashgaria were conquered by Ch'ien Lung (1736-96). Burma was penetrated and Cochin China and Korea were forced to pay tribute. After Ch'ien subsequent Machu emperors encountered increasingly difficulty suppressing rebellions. Chinese increasing tendency to turn inward and failure to pursue modern science and industry made it increasingly difficult to contend with the growing power of European nations intent on entering the China trade. The Manchus who found it difficult to descriminate among Europeans found it difficult to understand the national rivalries as well as the avarice of the Europeans. Trade florished even under restructions imposed by the Manchus. Europeans had difficulty, however, in delivering products of interest to the Chines, until the British and other foreign merchants i the 19th century began selling increasing quantities of opium which was illegal in China. The increasing tendency of Eurropean governments to intervene to protect their traders and the desire to maintain the lucrative opium trade led to Opium War which began in 1840. A naval task force by 1842 had forced China to make major concessions including ceeding Hong Kong as a British enclave. Other European powers also demanded similar enclaves. This generally took the form of areas of cities, but the French seized Tonkin expanding control of Indo-China (1884) and Japan which did embrace modern technology seized control of Korea (1894) and Taiwan (1895). Two elements emerged in China to contend with the Europeans. The first was traditionalist reactionary force onspired by te Emperess to exterminate the foreigners. Nationalist reformers desiring to modernize China were persecuted. The Boxers with their primitives weapons and with them the Emperess were humiliated by a foreign military expediton in 1900-01. Gradually the reformers grew in strength.

The 20th Century

China has had the most tumultous history of any country during the 20th century. China at the beginning of the 20th century wasa backward almpst medieval society. It has experienced both a civil war and the disaster of World War II. No country suffered more in World War II than China. The losses were enormous, even greater than Soviet losses. The enormity of the Japanese crimes in China still cloud their bilateral relationship. Following the War with Japan there was renewed civil war. The victory of the Communists meant massive social change. The Communists helped to moderize China, but the tragedies of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution caused enormous damage. Modern China has embraced economic market reforms, but has not yet moved to political democracy.

Sources

Chun Chang, January 14, 2002

Created: August 29, 2002
Last updated: 3:15 AM 4/19/2006