Figure 1.--This scene was posed for a stero-scopic viwer, a popular parlor diversion at the turn of the 20th century. The cCopyright was dated 1898 by B. L. Singley. The caption was, "Who's afraid of Spain. |
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The Spanish-American War announced America's arrival on the world stage. While one of the lesser known American wars, the War had huge implications for America's world role in the 20th century. The path to war led through Cuba. Cuba was the last important Spanisg colony in the Americas. Attempts by the Cubans to ver throw Spanish rule failed. A new revolution broke out (1895) and was brutally supressed by Spanish authorities. American economic interests were damaged in the fighting. Some American began to see strategic interests in Cuba, especially as interest was building for a canal in Central America. The situation in Cuba was brough to the attention of the American public through "yellow journalism" reporting lurid details of actual and imangined Spanish attrocities. W.R. Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World competed with each other for the most lurid stories to increase circulation. War fever grew when a letter written by a Spanish diplomat disparaging President McKinley was published. The sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana Harbor made war inevitable. The United States demanded Spain withdraw from Cuba. Spain declared war (April 24, 1898). The American Pacific Fleet commanded by George Dewey was ordered to engage the Spanish Fleet at Manila Bay. Dewey destoyed the Spanish Fleet (May 1). The American Atlantic Fleet sought out the Spanish Atlantic Fleet, but it sought refuge in Santiago Harbor. The advancing American Army forced the Spanish Fleet out and it was destoyed (July 3). Santiago subsequently surrendered. An Armistace was reached (August 12). The Treaty of Paris ending the War was signed (December 10). Spain granted Cuba independence. The United States attempted to control political developments in Cuba, even after withdrawing by insisting that the Platt Amendment be inserted in the Cuban Constitution. Spain ceeded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States and the Philippines for a $20 million payment. This ended the long history of the Spanish Empire in the America. It also began an involvement of the United States in Latin American affairs. America had earlier acquired the Hawaiian Islands. The acquisition of the Spanish territories also further involved America in the Far East.
The path to war led through Cuba. Cuba was the last important Spanisg colony in the Americas. Attempts by the Cubans to ver throw Spanish rule failed. A new revolution broke out (1895) and was brutally supressed by Spanish authorities.
American economic interests were damaged in the fighting. Americans by the 1890s had invested heavily in the sugar, tobacco,and mining industries. Some American began to see strategic interests in Cuba, especially as interest was building for a canal in Central America. America just north of the Caribbean had long held an interest in the region. There were both economic and strategic interests. Some in America had long been seen as a region for American expansion. Here there was considerable disagreement. America was also expanding its involvement in the Pacific, especially markets in China.
The situation in Cuba was brough to the attention of the American public through "yellow journalism" reporting lurid details of actual ad imagines Spanish attrocities. W.R. Hearst's New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World competed with each other for the most lurid stories to increase circulation. There were actual attrocities. Growing rebel popularity caused the Spanish military to move villages into "reconcentration" sites--concentration camps. The British woulkd do the same in South Africa during the Bohr War which also broke out in 1898. They erected cleared and fenced demilitarized zones. While this created ample instances of brutality, the American newspaper embelished on the facts available and even created incidents. War fever grew when a letter written by Seņor Dupuy de Lome (a Spanish diplomat) disparaging President McKinley was published. He described McKinley as "a weakling...a bidder for the admiration of the crowd". The battleship Maine was in Havana Harbor on a "goodwill visit". It exploded in Havana Harbor (February 15, 1898). Losses totaled 260 men. This press blaimed Spain, making war virtually inevitable. "Remember the Maine" became the American battle cry. After the War it was learned that there had been an internal explosion.
President McKinley was reluctant to ask for a declaration of war. Some in his administrtion like Assistantv-Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt was anxious for war.
Many in the Media also pressed for war. Some argued for intervention to protect American economic interests. There was also great pressure to protect Cubns from Spanish brutality.
The U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution proclaiming Cuba "free and independent" (April 19). McKinnley immediately signed it (April 20). Spain declared war (April 24, 1898).
The American Pacific Fleet commanded by Commodore George Dewey was ordered to engage the Spanish Fleet at Manila Bay. He was in Hong Kong and immediately sailed for the Philippines where an insurection against the Spanish was also underway. The Battle for Manila Bay began with Dewey's orders, "Fire when ready Grudley." Dewey destoyed the Spanish Fleet and harbor batteries (May 1). There were no American casualties. The United States did not want the insurgent Filipinos to seize power. Dewey had no land force, however, with which to occupy the islands. A land force of 11,000 ground troops was landed. There was at first an uneasy alliance between insurgent Filipino and U.S. forces led to a Spanish surrender (August 14).
Expansonists had long wanted to acquire the Hawaiian Islands. Only with Dewy's victorty in the Philippines was the case successfully be made for annexation. The Government declared Hawaii was needed as a navy base. Congress approved annexation (July 7, 1898).
Despite several years of war talk, the United States Army was totally unprepared for war. Fortunately for the United States, Spain was even less prepared and did not have the industrial and economic resourrces to match the Americans. The American Atlantic Fleet sought out the Spanish Atlantic Fleet, but it sought refuge in Santiago Harbor. The American land invasion was a chaotic affair. Roosevelt was resigned his Government post led a unit of voluntary calvalry (wjho were unable to bring their horses)--the Rough Riders. Col. Roosevelt and the Rough Riders became national heros. The Spanish forces on the island resisted vigorously. The advancing American Army forced the Spanish Fleet out and it was destoyed (July 3). Santiago subsequently surrendered. U.S. troops next invaded Puerto Rico and encountered minimal resistance. An Armistace was reached (August 12).
The Spanish-American War was a short relatively bloodless war in comparison tp the Civil War which preceeded it and World War I which followed it. About 3,000 Americans were killed.
The Treaty of Paris ending the War was signed (December 10). Spain granted Cuba independence. The United States attempted to control political developments in Cuba, even after withdrawing by insisting that the Platt Amendment be inserted in the Cuban Constitution. Spain ceeded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States and the Philippines for a $20 million payment.
This ended the long history of the Spanish Empire in the America. It also began an involvement of the United States in Latin American affairs. America had earlier acquired the Hawaiian Islands. The acquisition of the Spanish territories also further involved America in the Far East.
The Filipinos were initially grateful for U.S. assistance in expelling the Spanish, their goal was independence. Relations deteriorated when the Filipinos realized that the Americans were not prepared to grant indepencence. The United States had mixed motives. One was cincern over German intentions. Before the Treaty of Paris was signed with Spain, incidents occurred between the Filipino rebels and the Americn troops. The result was the Philippine-American War, the longest conflict in American history. It evolved into a vicious conflict which continued until 1913. While not really part of the Insurection, the Moro Rebellion was the longest lasting and most brutal phase of the conflict. The worst incident in the campaign was the massacre of about 600 Muslim Filipinos by troops under General Leonard Wood (March 1906). The racist attitudes of the day and Islanic fanaticism helped turn the war into a particular bloody undertaking. Civilian deaths were very substantial. There are no reliable records, Estimates range from 0.2-0.6 million civilians died from famine, disease, and war-related causes. The Spanish-American War began as a very popular campaign to free Cuba. The insurection in the Philippines was a very different matter. Freeing the Philippines had never even been mentioned in the run up to the War. The conflict with the Filipinos,although not reported in detail, was a very different matter. As the War continued crticism began to appear in the press. Mark Twain wa one of the vocal critics. He wrote about the contradictions between American anti-imperialism and "benevolent" foreign policy and the brutal consequences of the fighting in the Philippines. When those promoting American expnsion argued that the U.S. could not withdraw without "dishonor". Twain replied that "An inglorious peace is better than a dishonorable war." The consequences of aGerman occupation may have been far worse for the Filipinos.
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