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The marriage of Ferdinand V of Castile and Isabella I of Aragon essentially united the Iberaian peninsula, except Portugal, into a Spanish monarchy (1479). The last Moorish city, Granada fell (1492). With the Moors at last defeated, the Spanish could turn their energies into naval expansion, but weree behind the Portuguese in this area. Genonese navigator Christopher Columbus is the most renowned of all the great explorers. He sailed west under the banner of their most Cathlolic magesties Ferdinand and Isabella, hoping to reach the Indies (1492). The voyage was intensely debated by Spanish authorities. Knowledgeable people did not believe that the orld was flat. Many did believe that the world was so large that the crews of ships sailing west would perish before reaching Asia. Coilumbus of course found America, although it was not until his third voyage that he began to realize that he had found an entire new continent. Nuñez de Balboa reached the Pacific over the Istmus of Panama (1513). Charles I commissioned Magellan to find a passage through the Americas to the Spice Islands. Magellan sailed from Seville (1519) and explored the Plate estuary (1520) before crossing into the Pacific through the straits at the tip of South America now named for him. He claimed the Philippines for Spain, but was killed there (1521). One if his ships managed to return to Seville, completing the first circimnavigatiin of the world (1522). Conquistadores Hernado Cortes and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Incan civilizations, laying claim to great wealth and a vast colonial empire for Spain. Although at first disappointed with their new lands, the conquest of the Aztecs and Incas brought vast quantities of gold and silver flooding into Spain and through Spain the rest of Europe and had an enormous impact on the still largely feudal European economies. Many other new products were broughtb back to Spain. One of these, the humble potato, had an even more profound impact than the gold and silver. Coronado and Ponce de León expanded the Spanish claim to North America as well.
The Arab armies fired by Islam reached Western Europe in the 8th century, sweeping over the Iberian Peninsula, but turned back by the Franks at Tours. One small Christian kingdom remained unconquered. Islamic Spain was for a time the most prosperous and culturally advanced stte in Europe. The Reconquista was made possible by the breakup of Islamic Spain into competing Muslim states. What followed was the reconquest of the Iberian Penninsula by a long series of Christian kings. The Reconquista was conducted over several centuries. The last Muslim kingdom to fall was Grenada (1492).
The marriage of Ferdinand V of Castile and Isabella I of Aragon essentially united the Iberaian peninsula, except Portugal, into a Spanish monarchy (1479). The last Moorish city, Granada fell (1492). With the Moors at last defeated, the Spanish could turn their energies into naval expansion, but were behind the Portuguese in this area. The Portuguese for decades had been advancing maritime science and buillding a lucrative overseas commercial empire. The Spanish focus was on land war with the Moors. As a result, many of the great Spanish expeditions were led by Italians and Portuguese. Even after launching overseas expeditions, King Ferdinand's focus was always on Europe and expanding his European possessions.
Spain and its Catholic monarchs in the late 15th century were focused on the Reconquista and Mediterranean politics. They had not like the Portuguese heavily invested in Atlantic voyages and acqyuiring geographic and navigational data. Several unrelated developments, however, combined to launch Spain on the path of global empire and fabulous wealth. The rise of the Ottoman Empire began to close off Europeans to easterly trading routes. And the victory of Venice over Italy within Italy, mean that Genoans who had acquited geographic and navigatiojal knowledge had to look west for employment. And the most obvious place for such employment was the Overian Peninsula which jutted out into the Atlanic Ocean. Both Portugal and Spain had Atlantic ports from which expeditions could be launched. The Poirtuguese had already invested heavily in maritime expeditions and did not need Italian navigators. Spain on the otherhand had not. Thus the Italian skills and knowledge were of much greater importance.
Genonese navigator Christopher Columbus is the most renowned of all the great explorers. Columbus came from modest origins in Genoa (1449). He was influenced by Paolo Toscanelli--the Sage of Florence who urged ebterprising navigators to sail west. Columbus and other Genoese navigators and seamen sought employment in the West after Venice defeated rival Genoa in a struggle for naval supremecy in the Eastern Mediterranean. As a young man Columbus traveled extensively in Europe, concocting money-raising schemes and fleeing his creditors. He also acquired navigational and maritime skills. Columbus saided as far west and south as Maderia where his Portuguese wife's relatively prosperous family lived. Most of his voyages, however were north and south. He was part of a Portuguese expedition to Ghana. And he sailed north to England to trade wool. Columbus and fellow Genoan John Cabot may have made a compsct to cooperate in exploring the Atlantic (1483). [Boyle] Columbus appealed to King John II of Portugal to finance a voyage west into the Atlantic. Navigation experts at the court focused on voyages south along the coast of Africa rejected his project as unfeasible. Columbus finally sailed west on his First Voyage under the banner of their most Cathlolic magesties Ferdinand and Isabella, hoping to reach the Indies (1492-93). The voyage was intensely debated by Spanish authorities. Knowledgeable people did not believe that the world was flat. Many did believe that the world was so large that the crews of ships sailing west would perish before reaching Asia. He began the settlement of his discoveries on his Second Voyage (1493-95). Columbus of course had found America, although it was not until his Third Voyage when he reached the South American continent that he began to realize, but never admitted. that he had found an entire new continent (1498-50). [Bowden] Columbus despite his achievements was a controversial figure in his own era. And in our politically correct world has become a controversial figure. Many of found of insisting that he was not the first European to reach the Americas. This is probably correct, the Viking amnd Leif Erickson almost certainly reached North America centuries earlier. Columbus was the first, however, who had his voyage extensively document and the results published. Columbus is also accused of brutality and mistreatment of the Native Americans. Much of this is true, but in this regard he seems little different than other early explorers. It is also true that he was a failure as a colonial administrtor. He was in fact returned home from his Third Voyage in chains. His final Fourth Voyage ended in disaster and he almost perished on Jamaica where is ship wrecked (1502-04). He finally had to buy his passage home to Spain--a great humiliation. All of this, however, has little to say as regards his achievements a navigtor. The Americas today would surely be named after Columbus, excpet that he continued to insist that he had not discovered a new continent, but had reached the fabeled East.
One might wonder why America is called America rather than Columbia after Columbus who after all discovered it for Europeans. America is named after Amerigo Vespucci who never commanded an exploratory expedition. Vespucci was born in Florence, the third child of a respected but minor family. His father was a notary for the Money Changers' Guild of Florence. As a result of his more advantageous social position, he had much grander aspirations than his more humble Genoan competitors (Columbus and Cabot). The young Amerigo worked for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici and his brother Giovanni. It was these brothers who were driven out of Florence when the Midicis fell from power that sent Vespucci to work in of all places Seville, Spain where they had an agency (1492). This was of course the precise time that Columbus' voyage opened up tremendous opportunities. Vespucci became an agent to Columbus' agent and financier. Thus the virtually unknown Italian merchant began the transition to a famed explorer and cartographer. Vespucci participated in two Spanish expeditions along the southern coast of South America. As a result of these voyages, he realized that the coast of the what Columbus had discovered extended much further south than originally believed. He thus came to believe that the discovery was a new continent and not Asia as Columbus and others originally believed. German scholar and cartoghrapher Martin Waldseemuller honoring Vespucci's insight created one of the most historic maps in history (1507). His map was the first to show the Pacific as a separate ocean. And he was the first to name the new continent Columbus had discovered--America. The Spanish Crown created the position of pilot major (chief of navigation) of Spain for Vespucci (1508). He was given responsibility for training pilots (navigators) for ocean voyages. He sucumed to malaria and died in Seville (1512).
Vasco Núñez de Balboa was born at Jerez de los Caballeros, Spain (1475). He participated in an expedition with Rodrigo de Bastidas (1501). They were motivated by a report from Columbus that pearls could be found on the northern coast of Venezuela. Bastidas and Balboa traded inexpeive European trinkets for f pearls and gold. They then sailed west, but their ship began to leak. They had to abandon their ship on Hispaniola. Their treasure was seized by the Spanisg Governor and Balboa was penniless again.
He tried farming, but the labor and limited returns was not what hedreamed about. Leaving behind unpaid debts, Balboa stowed away with his faithful dog on board a relief supply ship headed for San Sabastian on the Isthmus of Panama (1510). Balboa's travels took him to Coiba where he befriended a local Native American chief, marrying the chief’s daughter. Balboa negotiated an alliance between the Spaniards and Comogre, another powerful native chief. It was Comogre who offered to lead the Spaniards to the other side of the isthmus if they would help defeat one of his tribe’s enemies. Balboa agreed and headed an expedition with 190 Spanish soldiers and about 1,000 Native Americans (September 1513). Balboa’s expedition crossed extreemly denses rain forest, fighting Native American tribes. Balboa from the top of the hill was the first European to view the Pacific (September 25, 1513). This confirmed the fact that what Columbus discovered was anew continent and not Asia.
Juan Ponce de Leon is credited as the first European to reach the coast of what was go become the the United States. He was a Spanish soldier left unemployedcafter the fall of Granada (1492). Like others he was attracted by the the opportunities created as a result of Columbus' discoveries. He provd himself a capable military commanddr on Hispaniola and played an important role in subgegating the Native American population. Hos reqard was the post of govenor on Puerto Rico, becoming a rich man. King Ferdinand wanted to expand his possessions outside of the area which Columus had found. Ponce de Leon was more than willing to take up the challenge. He received a royal commission. He financed an expedition to the northeast of Hispaniola out of his own personal fortune. Ponce de Leon have been preceeded by Spanish slaving raids from Cuba where the native population had been decimated by the Spanish. John Cabot had earlier reached North America, but far to the north. Cabot landed, however, on an island off Nova Scotia, claiming it for the English crown. Ponce de Leon landed on the actual mainland of Florida (1513). The precise location is disputed. He named it La Florida because of the many tropicl flowers he found there. Ponce de Leon returned to Spain and was subsequently involved in poorly documented campaihns against Native Americans on Carinnean islands, including Guadeloupe. He had not forgotten Florida. He organized an expedition to colonize Florida (1521). The expedition landed along the southwestern coast, somewhere near the Caloosahatchee River. They were attacked by Calusa braves. The Native Americns by this time were well acquainted with Europeans as a resilt of slaving raids. Ponce de Leon was hit with a poisoned arrow. The Spanish withdrew. Ponce de Leon made it back to Cuba, but died in Havama soon after. One would have thought that Floridawould have been colonized by the Spanusg soon after Cub. This did not prove to be the case. In fact, the Spanish carved out an empire in Mexico and even far away Peru before seizing control of Florida. There are several reasons for this. The absence of gold is one reason. Another is that Florida was not a Native American n empire, thus the Spnish did not have subgegated peoples to recruit as allies.
Ferdinand Magellan was one of several Portugese navigators who enlisted in the service of the Spanish crown. The Spanish were occupied with defeating the Moors while the Portuguese has for nearly a century been involved with maritime exploration and overseas trade and thus many early Spanish expeditions utilized the services of Italians and Portuguese. Magellan as a young man tuned to the sea. He fought in the great battel of Diu that defeated the Arab fleet, opening the Indian Ocean (1509). He was involved in voyages to China and the Spice Islands. Is at this time he conceived of the idea of sailing west from Spain and circumnavigating the world. Charles I (better known as Charles V, commissioned Ferdinand Magellan to find a passage through the Americas to the Spice Islands. Magellan with a fleet of five ships sailed from Seville-- San Lucar de Barameda (1519) and explored the Plate estuary (1520). The passage to the Pacific, however, was found much further south at the very southern tip of South America. He finally crossed into the Pacific through the straits now named for him. He named the ocean the Pacific, because of the calm waters he encountred. Instead of returning to Spain with his discovery, however, Magellan decided to continue west. He claimed the Philippines for Spain, but was killed there (1521). Only one of his ships managed to return to Seville, completing the first circimnavigation of the world (1522).
The Spanish today are primarily associated with the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. In fact, the Spanish knew a great deal about what is today the coast of ehat is now the United States as well. Estéban Gómez was a Portuguese navigator aboard one of Magellan's ships, the Santo Antonio. When Magellan gave command of the ship to another crew member, Gómez led a mutiny and seized control of the ship (1520). Gómez deserted Magellan's fleet, reversed course, and returned to Seville Spain (1521). Gómez and the trew were tried for mutiny, but fouhd not guilty. Emperor Charvels V gave Gómez command of an expedition to find a northwest passage to the Pacific (1524). Gómez sailed alobg the northeast coast of North America (1525). He sailed up the major inlets he found. He reported one such inlet at 37°N, presumably the Chesapeake Bay. He published his diary (1529). It included a rensribng of the coast of what is now Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts. Gómez's cpmmission was to find a passage to the Pacofic, but unlike the voyagesfurther south, he was not followed by conquistadores and colonists. It is not altogether clear why the Spanish did not colonize what is now the United States. One reason is that there was no gold found, but the same is essentially true of the Caribbean where only small amounts of gold was found. One author suggests that North America at the tome was densely populated by Native Americans capable of resisting settlement. [Mann, p. 52.]
The Conquistadores were private companies or armies which fought in the name of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies. Hernado Cortes led the Conquistadores who conquered the Aztec Empire. Francisco Pizarro and his brothers led thev Conquistadores who conquered the Inca Empire. The Conquistadores produced great wealth, gold and silver, and a vast colonial empire for Spain. Individual conquistadores often got only a small share of the gold and silver, but many benefitted from land grants. Although at first disappointed with their new lands, the conquest of the Aztecs and Incas brought vast quantities of gold and silver flooding into Spain and through Spain the rest of Europe and had an enormous impact on the still largely feudal European economies. Many other new products were brought back to Spain. One of these, the humble potato, had an even more profound impact than the gold and silver. Coronado and Ponce de León expanded the Spanish claim to North America as well.
Hernado Cortes led the Conquistadores who conquered the Aztec Empire. He was born in Medellin, Estramadura, in Spain in 1485. His family was a member of the minor nobility. He began to study law a few years after Columbus' first voyage at the University of Salamanca (1499). Cortez apparently had little interest in practicing law and studiedonly intermitently for 2 years. He prepared for a Spanish military expedition in Italy, but after becoming sick was not able to participate. After recovering he decided to seek his fortune in the West Indies. He arrived in Hispaniola (1504). He fought in battles against the Arawak Indians. Diego Velazquez who was to become the future governor of Cuba launched a campaign to establish a Spanish colony in Cuba. Cortez fought the Indians as part of the campaign and Velasquez was impressed with him.
Spanish conquistador Pánfilo de Narváez participated in the Spanish conquest of Jamaica (1509) and Cuba (1512). He subsequently led two expeditions, both of which failed. The first was to Mexico to oppose Hernándo Cortés (1520). Cortez's conquest of the Aztec Empire and acquisition of fabulous quantities of gold and silver fueld wild rumors about other rich Native Ameican empires. A factor here was the tactic of Native Americans of spinning wild tales of gold and wealth as away of directing the attention of the Spanish elewhre. After the failure of Ponce de Leon's colonizing expedition, Pánfilo de Narváez launched an expedition to Florida (1528). It was a disaster. Most of the Spanish were killed by the Native Americans or died because of disease and starvation. The expedition included slaves. Esteban (or Estevanico) became the first African to reach North America. He was one of only four survivors. The four men spent 8 years traveling from Florida, across Texas and the Southwest until finally reaching New Spain (Mexico). They were made slaves by the Native American peoples they encountered, but gradully earned the respect of the different tribes who found them so different than the other Spaniards they encountered. They finally encountered Spanish slave raiders near Culiacán (Sinaloa) (1536). Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca when he returned to Spain published an account entitled Naufragios (Shipwrecks) in which he described the experiences of the the four survivors on their 8-year epic journey on foot across the southeastern United States (1542). It is an invaluable account of the Native American peoples of the Southwest just as they encountered the Spanish.
Hernando de Soto in part based on the account of Cabeza de Vaca, landed another expedition on the coast of Florida (1539). His expedition of 1,200 men included about 50 African slaves. He explored what is now the southeastern United States (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina). The expedition did not find the gold and rich Native American empire thar de Soto was seeking. The expedition ended in disaster. The expedition included pigs which the Spanish brought along for food. Most escaped into the wild creating a feral population. Some historians believe they played a major role in the epidemic of Europeans dideases which devestated the Native American population of the Southeast. [Mann, pp. 108-10.]
Francisco Pizarro and his brothers led the Conquistadores who conquered the Inca Empire. Francisco Pizarro was one of the most renowned Spanish conquistador who led the Spanish in their conquest of the Inca Empire. He ws born in Trujillo. He was the illegitimate son of a Spanish gentleman (minor nobel). Little is known of his childhood. Pizarro grew up in povrty and was a swinhered as a boy. He was not schooled and like many with his background illiterate. He decided to seek his fortune with Ojeda in the New World (1510). He arrived in Hispaniola and then joined an expedition led by Nuñez de Balboa, serving as his chief lieutenant. The expedition crossed the Istmus of Panama and were the first Europeans to see the Pacific from the New World (1513). Pizarro settled in Panama (1519) where he led a prosperous life compared to his early life in Spain.
Spanish Conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado is remembered now as the leader of the most incredible Spanish expedition seeking gold. Coronado was born to a noble family in Salamanca (1510). As a young man at court he was captivated by the amazing stories of adventure and riches coming from the Americas. He befriended Antonio de Mendoza. The Crown appointed Mendoza viceroy of New Spain (1535). New Spain (modern Mexico) was at the time the center if the developing Spanish Empire. Coronado accompanied Mendoza to New Spain as his assistant. Coronado proved invaluable. He suppressed a slave rebellion and brutally pacified the Native Americans still resisting the Spanish. He married Beatriz Estrada, the wealthy daughter of the colonial treasurer. Mendoza appointed Coronado governor of New Galicia, a province at the edge of Spanish control in western Mexico (1538).
The Spanish including Mendoza were fascinated by fantastic accounts of the Seven Golden Cities of Cibola to the north of New Spain. Today we know tht these tales were myths. But at the time they did not seem any more fantastic that what the Spanish had found in the Aztec's Tenochititlan. And they not only had Native American accounts, but reports from the survivors of the Pánfilo de Narváez expedition. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca reported the accounts. Mendoza organized a small expedition under Estéban, the slave who have been another survivor of the
Pánfilo de Narváez expedition (1539). Fray Marcos de Niza verifed de Vaca's reports. Fray Marcos heard of the cities from Native Americans. (Such accounts were usually designed to get the Spanish to move on. In his report to Mendoza, Fray Marcos claimed that he had seen one of the cities. That was enough for Mendoza. He organized an impressive and very costly expedition, 1,400 men and 1,500 animals. This included Some 300 Spaniards bolstered by hundreds of native auxileries marched north. With them came slave laborers and horses as well as food on the hoof (herds of sheep, pigs and cattle). Two ships were placed under the command of Hernando de Alarcón to support the expedition. They sailed into the Gulf of California and discovered the mouth of the Colorado River (August 1540). Mendoza put Coronado in command of the land force to seize the fabulous treasure. Coronado's force left Compostela and proceeded north up the west coast of Mexico (February 1540). They reached Culiacán, the northern-most outpost of New Galicia. The expedition continued north, crossing the San Pedro River into what is now Arizona (April 1540). Coronado can not be criticized for not purauing his assignment. He conducted an exaustive search throughout what is now the southwestern United States. It was a brutal expedituon. They found only desolate Native American villages with few valuables. This did not discourage Coronado. He had to be ordered back to Mexico (1542). Governor Mendoza was hard pressed by the Mixtón Rebellion in central Mexico. Only 100 of the men he left with made it back. And by the time he arrived, the Mixtón Rebellion had already been defeated.
Coronado's expedition had been a complete and costly failure. He retained his position as governor of Nueva Galicia. The expedition, however, bankrupted him. The Native American tribes at the time did not have horses in any numbers. Horses were a European import. As a result, of the expedition and escaping horses, a ferral population began to develop on the Great Plains which changed the culture of the Plains tribes. The Native Americans now had a more effective way of hunting buffalo. While the expedition was a total failure, it did established Spain's claim to what is now northern Mexico and the southwestern United States.
Bowden, Thomas. The Enemies of Christopher Columbus.
Boyle. David. Towards the Setting Sun: Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and the Race for America (Walker & Company, 2008), 421p.
Mann, Chrles C. 1491: New Relevations of the Americas Before Columbus (Vintahe Books: New York, 2006), 538p.
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