Figure 1.--The Austrian-Hungarian Empire was composed of many nationalities. One of those nationalities was Italian. Ever after Italian unification, lrge areas of northeastern Italy including Venice were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. I'm not sure about the language of instruction at these schools. Here we have an image showing the school in "Ronchi dei Legionari", a village 130 km from Venice. The photo was taken in 1903 and at that time Ronchi dei Legionari was in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The picture shows the 3rd grade.

Prussia defeated Austria in the Austro-Prussian War (1866) this ended the Hapsburgs' attempt to unify Germany. Rather the Hapsburg lands were recreated as a dual monarchy with extensive possessions to the east and south of Germany. The result was the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867)The Empire was governed by a German and Hungarian ruling class. Other nationalities has lesser rights. The Empire had to deal with increasing demands from subject nationalities for autonomy or even independence. The issue of nationalities became the most difficult for the Empire. And one of those issues was the language of instruction in the schools. People tended to want their children taught in their own native languages. Kneepants became ibncreasingly common in the late 19th century. Sailor suits continued to be popular and were commonly worn to school by younger boys.

Austria

Of course in Austria itself the language of instruction was German. I do not know at this time if there were any exceptions to this. Schools in Austria was significantly affected by a Concodat with the Vatican (1855). The primary schools were effective. A course of study which is still used was drawn up for the gymnasia (secondary schools). The University of Vienna achieved a world wide reputation. This basic organization influenced or was implemented in other regions of the Empire.

Bosnia

The Hapsburgs gained control of Bosnia from the Ottomans (1882?). The Hapsburgs declared Bosnia a “crown land”. They governed it through a special joint commission under the Ministry of Finance which was a Austrian-Hungarian common ministry. The Hapsburgs moved gradually after gaining control of Bosnia. The old Ottoman administrative structure was retained. Emperial laws were only gradually introduced. The Hapsburgs announced the formal annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (1909). I'm not sure what education was like in the Ottomon Empire. I suspect that schools in Ottomon controlled Bosnia were very limited. The Hapsburgs built three secondary schools and nearly 200 primary schools. They did not intriduce compulsory education until formal annexation (1909). The Hapsburgs built substantial shools, some if which are still in use. I am not yet sure about the language of instruction.

Bohemia (Czech)

Galicia

The principal Austro-Hungarian province with a Polish population was Galicia. Austria acquired Polish Galicua in the 18th century Polish Partitions (First Partition).

Hungary

I am not sure what the language of instruction was before the dual monarchy was formed (1867). After the Austro Prussian War (1866), the Magyars forced the Emperor to accept a dual monarchy. This compromise was called the Ausgleich and recreated the Hapsburg Empire by setting up a Dual Monarchy--Austria-Hungary. This created two separate countries with different constitutional arrangements. They were linked in the person of a common ruler. There were some joint ministries. Each country had a separate government and parliament. The joint ministeries were Finance, Defence and Foreign Affairs. There was also a joint parliamentary body (known as the Delegations) with equal members from Hungary and Austria. Education was under the control of the Hungarian government. Thus the lnguage of instruction was Hungarian. We note some boys wearing uniforms. We do not know yet what kind of schools these were.

Italy

An Italian reader tells us, "The language of instruction was certainly Italian. Since 1861 (Kingdom of Italy proclamation) Venice was Italian, but northern of Venice was Austro-Hungarian Empire. There were three regions in modern Italy that were were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire: the capitals were Trieste (in the far East), Trento, and Bolzano (in German Bozen). Only Bolzano was (and still is) a German-speaking region. Ronchi dei Legionari is in the Trento region."

Moravia

Ruthenia

Ruthenian was the Austro-Hungarian term for Ukranian. It was adopted to demphaize the ethnic connections with Ukranians in the Russian Empire.

Slovakia

Within the Dual Monarchy, Slovakia was ruled from Hungaria. Hungarian policy was to discourage the development of Slovakian nationalism. This was reflected in Hungarian policy which discouraged education and the use of the Slovakian language.

Slovenia

Sudetenland

The Sudetenland is the mountaneous fringe around Bohemia where the Sudeten Mountains separated Czech Bohemia from Bavaria and the rest of southern Germany. The Habsburgs integrated the Kingdom of Bohemia into their monarchy (17th century). Conflict between Czech and German nationalists emerged after the Napoleonic Wars in the 19th century. During the Revolutions of 1848 the German-speaking population wanted to become part of a new unified German state. The Czech-speaking population resisted any inclusion of Bohemia. The name "Sudetendeutsche" (Sudeten Germans) emerged in the early 20th century as poltics became more ethnically tinged. Comparable terms emerged at the same time for other German ethnic groups within the Empire. The Alpendeutsche (Alpine Germans) wre the Germans in Austriaitself. The Balkandeutsche (Balkan Germans) were the Germans in Hungary and the eastern regions. The term "Sudetendeutsche" became partivularly pronounced because of ethnic and cultural conflicts within the Czechs in Bohemia. The population was largely German-speaking. I am not sure at this time what the constitutional arrangements were within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Nor do we have any details about the schools in the Sudeten region. The Austro-Prussian War (1866) serttled the role of Austria in Germany. It led after the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) to the unification of Germany under Prussia. There were, however, Germans left out side if the new German Empire. The Germans in the Sudetenland were some of these Germans. Etnic Germans played an important role in the 19th Century Bohemian industrial revolution. The Germans were favored by the Habsburg regime and they tend to look down on the more agricultural Czech and Slovak neighbors in Bohemia. The region after Wotld War I was combined with the Czech and Slovakian lands to form Czechoslovakia (1919). Hitler of course made it an issue and threatened war until the British and French turned it over to NAZI Germany at the Munich Conference (1938).

Transylvania

Transylvania was ruled by the Hungarians. It had a majority Romanian population. The schools were taught in Hungarian. After World War I, Transylvania was transferred to Romania.

Carefull, clicking on these will exit you from the Boys' Historical Clothing web site, but several are highly recommended

Apertures Press New Zealand book: New eBook on British preparatory schools available

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Created: 9:28 PM 3/25/2006
Last updated: 11:57 PM 3/13/2009