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Despite three centuries of suppression, Christianity was adopted as the state religion of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the 4th century AD. The turning point occurred in the first decade of 4th century with the resignation of Diocletian (305 AD). A power struggle followed. A first political, open hostilities broke out between Maxentius and Constantine (310). Constanine was not a Christian, but a devotee of god of war Mars and the Sun god Apollo--Sol Invictus. He was, however, favorably disposed toward the Christians because his mother, later consecrated as St. Helena, was a Christian. Constantine the night before the decisive battle with Maxentius had a vision of the Sun with the image of the Cross and the legend "By this conquer". He had his men paint crosses on their shields and won the decisive victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 AD), leaving Constantine in control of the Empire. When Diocletian and Maximian retired (305), persecution of the Christians was still in progress. Constantine realized that the Christians were a major force. They had o be suppressed or integrated. There were still many in imperial circles that wanted to suppress the Christians. Constantine was a pragmatist and astutely assessed the growing strength of the Christians. After Constantine's victory, he rally ended all persecution and even made arrangement for restitution if possible. He not only end the suppression, but actively promoted the Church, allocating money to build churches, pay salaries, copy and manuscripts. Christians were granted freedom of worship, including public devotions. Sunday was made a day of rest, although the name suggests this was in deference to Apollo. Constantine also relocated the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople, a strategic location on the Bosporus. Constantine sought unity. While the Church received official sanction and support, the Church now was less independent and had to submit to imperial political control. One of the first actions of the Church once it obtained imperial sanction was was to begin the prosecutions of other Christians who did not conform to approved theology. Church leaders sought to suppress Marsian and Gonostics Christians.
Despite three centuries of suppression, Christianity was adopted as the state religion of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the 4th century AD. The turning point occurred in the first decade of 4th century with the resignation of Diocletian (305 AD).
A power struggle followed. A first political, open hostilities broke out between Maxentius and Constantine (310). Constantine was not a Christian, but a devotee of god of war Mars and the Sun god Apollo--Sol Invictus. He was, however, favorably disposed toward the Christians because his mother, later consecrated as St. Helena, was a Christian. Constantine the night before the decisive battle with Maxentius had a vision of the Sun with the image of the Cross and the legend "By this conquer". He had his men paint crosses on their shields and won the decisive victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312 AD), leaving Constantine in control of the Empire.
Constantine's conversion to Christianity had an incalculable impact on not only the Roman Empire, but world history. The conversion was, however, only one aspect of a very talented military commander and political leader. This enabled him to defeat rival commanders and take control of an Empire enthroned by internal division and foreign enemies. He was an aggressive military commander. And like others of his age capable of great cruelty. Often not mentioned is that Constantine who either executed or drove to suicide many of those around him, including his father-in-law, two brothers-in-law, his eldest son, and a once cherished wife. Through all of this he emerged as a shrewd commander and ruler who united the Empire and restored much of its former power and glory. One recent historian identified Constantine as the emperor with one of the most pivotal reigns in all of history. He describes Constantine as not just the emperor who converted, but a shrewd commander who was able to identify and exploit the weaknesses of his enemies. This allowed him to seize control of the Empire. This historian maintains that he was committed to protecting the weak and ensuring fairness for the subjects of the Empire. [Potter] To the extent this is true, it was a rare characteristic of Roman emperors.
When Diocletian and Maximian retired (305), persecution of the Christians was still in progress. Constantine realized that the Christians were a major force. They had to be suppressed or integrated. There were still many in imperial circles that wanted to suppress the Christians. Constantine was a pragmatist and astutely assessed the growing strength of the Christians. After Constantine's victory, he rally ended all persecution and even made arrangement for restitution if possible. He not only ended the suppression, but actively promoted the Church, allocating money to build churches, pay salaries, copy and manuscripts. Christians were granted freedom of worship, including public devotions. Sunday was made a day of rest, although the name suggests this was in deference to Apollo. Constantine issued his Edict if Toleration (313).
Constantine also relocated the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople, a strategic location on the Bosporus.
Constantine sought unity. While the Church received official sanction and support, the Church now was less independent and had to submit to imperial political control. One of the first actions of the Church once it obtained imperial sanction was was to begin the persecution of other Christians who did not conform to approved theology. Church leaders sought to suppress Marsian and Gonostics Christians.
The most serious issue in the newly legalized Christian Church was the nature of the Godhead, and specifically the precise relationship of the Son to the Father. In the early years of the Church, many thought Christ was not the earthly embodiment of God. Arius ( -336) was a presbyter at Alexandria, an important center of Christian teaching, and became prominent in the Church because of his preaching on the nature of the Trinity. Ariius taught Christ was not co-eternal with the Father and that Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were three separate and distinct manifestations. He believed that Son or Jesus was subordinate to the Father--subordination. He saw Jesus as the creation of the Father. He insisted that if Jesus was the son of God that he must be on an order of importance less than God. The Holy Spirit was subordinate to both God the Father and Jesus. Egyptian and Libyan bishops condemned his teachings (321 AD). Arius was excommunicated by his bishop, but his teaching had considerable support within the Church. This did not end his teaching.
Constantine sought unity. He summoned what has become known as the First Ecumenical Council of the church. The opening session was held in the great hall of the palace at Nicaea (May 20, 325). Constantine himself presiding and giving the opening speech. He called the Council of Nicea to settle the theological questions (325 AD). Athanasius was the chief opponent of Arius at the Council. Arius' views were condemned, his writings burned publicly, and Arius banished to Illyria. The council formulated a creed which, although it was revised at the Council of Constantinople (381-82) and is today known the Nicene Creed. The Arian heresy did not end here. The Council had ruled, but there was no real consensus among the faithful. [Freeman] It still was supported by large numbers of Christians. It was a factor in the conflict between Clovis and the Visigoths and between Arian and Catholic Gauls in Spain. Even today it is a theme in Christian theological debates, although it is not accepted by any important Christian Church.
A court orator, Theodosius, insisted, "God enjoys being worshiper in a variety of ways." The Emperor Theodosius did not agree. He tried to convince Demophilus to convert to the Nicene Trinity. When he failed, he decided that the power of the state was needed to compel conversion. The Emperor issued an epistula (January 381). It was a formal letter announcing that the only allowed Christian theology was the Nicene Trinity: God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. All were viewed with equal majesty. All other Christian theologies and, soon after, pagan religions were condemned as heretical. State power would be used to enforce the decrees and punish offenders. Religious tolerance would have a very limited life span in the new Christian Empire. This act would impct Christian Europe for more than a millennium, long after the demise of the Empire itself. [Freeman]
The Church still included a range of theological views even after the Council of Nicaea (325). The Church elders again endorsed the Nicene Trinity. Again, however, there was no real theological consensus among the wider church community. One historian describes the Council as a 'shambles'. [Freeman] Rather the issue was settled imperial fiat. It repudiated Constatine's Edict of Toleration in the empire (313). The decision of Theodosius and the Council of Constantinople reversed centuries of Roman traditions. Despite the persecution of Christians, there was in fact a high degree of religious diversity and toleration in the Greco-Roman world. Intolerance would become a feature of Christian Europe which would not be challenged until after the European religious wars (17th century).
Rome's religion is today described as paganism. It was a kind of mix of religion, morality, and patriotism. A fundamental step in the waning years of the Empire was the conversion to Christianity. This would fundamentally affect the future of Western civilization. Some authors because of the timing attribute Christianity, at least in part, to the fall of the Empire. Most notably this was Gibbon's principal thesis. [Gibbon]
Freeman, Charles. A.D. 381: Heretics, Pagans and the Dawn of the Monotheistic State, 272p.
Gibbon, Edward. The Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776).
Potter, David. Constantine the Emperor (2012), 368p.
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