Figure 1.--

Slavery was not codified into the Federal Constitution, but it was also recognized and not prohibited. The Constitution did provodide for ending the slave trade. American donestic politics in the first half of the 19th century was dominated by the issue of slavery. Gradually slavery was ended in the northern states. The economic importance of cotton, however, prevented this in the South. Rather than slowly disappearing, slavery grew ijn importance in the South. The political and legal difficulties wih having slave and free states became increasingly pronounced over time, as did the emotioal tone of the debate. Abolition gradually evolved from a minor movement to a very important movement in the North. Hariet Beexher Stowe's book played an iportant role here. The South responded by ending debate on slavery--surely the most severe limitation on free speech in American history. America after seven decades of effort was unable to find a political solution to slavery--the single greatest failure of the American political system. A series of political comprises had defused the issue--but not resolved it. Finally compromise failed as positions hardened and Southerners attemted to expand slavery. The primary cause of the Civil War was slavery. It was the War that utimately ended slavery in America. President Lincoln in practical terms ended slavery with the Emancipation Proclamation (1863). The proclamation based on executive authority was on limited and tenuous grounds. Thus the abolition of slavery was only ultimately achieved with the 13th Amendment to the Constitution (1865).

The American Debate Over Slavery

The debate over slavery in the United States did not begin with the Constitutinal Convention (1787), but it was here that the issue first came to the fore. Some northern delegates were opposed to it. Southern delegates were committed to it. It became clear that there would be no Constitution without a compromise. The compromise was that a decission on the future of slavery wold be deferred. A curious arrangement was written in to the Constitution by which for voting purposes slaves would be counted as 2/3s of a person. Many delegates believed or at least hope that slavery would gradually die out as individuals states abolished it. Subsequent history was a series of compromises meant to difuse the issue. The centerpiece of this effort was the Missouri Compromise (1820). This worked for over three decades until promoted by Seator Stephen Douglas Congress undid it with the Kansas-Nebrasks Act (1854). The result was rising tensions, "Bleeding Kansas", the and a the breakdown of compromise, John Brown's raid on the Federal arsenal, and at last a breakdown of comprosise and civil war.

Cotton

Cotton is the most widely used natural fiber in the manufacture of clothing. It has a number of qualities making it ideal for making textiles and clothing. It is a natural vegetable fiber--the most important textile raw material. Cotton also played a major role in the Industrial Revolution that has so changed modern life. American slavery was decling in importance. Many though that in the South it would eventually disappear as it was in the North. The Industrial Revolution, however, led to Ely Whitney's cotton gin. The resulting efficiences changed the economies of cotton cultivation. New plantations were founded on King Cotton as Southern planters moved west into Alabama and Mississpi and eventually Texas. The revitalization of the South's slave-based economy began a process that was to laed inexorably to Civil War. Cotton today continues to be the most important natural textile, still widely used in the production of clothing.

Free Blacks

The history of black Americans before the Civil War primarily focuses on slavery. While most blacks lived in the South as slaves, there were free blacks and not only in the northern strates. The northern states relatively soon after the Revolution abolished slavery. This was done state by state. While slavery was abolished, not all slaves were immeiately emancipated. Even when emancipated, blacks in the soiuth were not afforced full civil rights such as ther franchise. There was also resistance in allowing black children to attend public schools. Slavery was retained by the border and southern states. Even in the southern states there were free blacks. Some southern states passed laws requiring freed slaves to leave the state, but her enforcement was often uneven. We are not sure just how many free blacks there were in the South. One study of Virginia, estimates that nearly 10 percent of the state's black population was free. [Ely] This proportion of the population rather surprised me. I'm not sure about the proportion in other slave states. What is interesting about the free blacks in the South before the Civil War is that they had the right to own property. They also had access to the courts. This is not to say there was equal justice. Court records show that blacks did bring civil actions and at least in property mastters did receive some judiucual relif. [Ely] Another interesting aspect of free blacks in the South before the Civil War is that there were shared institutions. Free blacks for example attended churches with whites. Of course the churches were run by the whites. It is also true that men that attended church together also did business with each other. [Ely] Many of the interactions and shared institutions disappeared after the War.

Nat Turner Rebellion (1831)

The best known slave rebellion was that fomented by Nat Turner.

Living Conditions

After the Civil War the Lost Cause historians promoted the idea that slaves were well cared for, in part because they were the prperty of their masters. This argument is of course perposterous on its face. We all know of many examples where people do not care for their property. We also know of behavior of individuals when there are no legal constraints. More than anything else, if conditions were so good, why were poor people not signing up to be slaves. Now while there are many individual accounts of slaves that were mistreated. Photographic images of slaves with scarred backs are testiment to the accuracy of written accounts of brutal working conditions. What we know less about is any overall accounts dealing with how slaves were cared for, including their nutrition, clothing, medical care, and other indices of welfare. We do not yet know of such accounts, but hope to find some useful works. Clothing is perhaps the easiest to document, in pat because there are photographic images of slaves from the 1850s and 60s. The number of such images are limited, but they do exist. What is often unknown is how representative such images are.

Abolitionist Movement

The political and legal difficulties wih having slave and free states became increasingly pronounced over time, as did the emotioal tone of the debate. Abolition gradually evolved from a minor movement to a very important movement in the North. Hariet Beexher Stowe's book played an iportant role here. The South responded by ending debate on slavery--surely the most severe limitation on free speech in American history.

Civil War (1861-65)

American donestic politics in the first half of the 19th century was dominated by the issue of slavery. America was unable to find a political solution to slavery. The primary cause of the Civil War was slavery. "Lost Cause" historians after the War attempted to down play the importance of slavery, primarily because the Confederacy and the Southern cause could not be defended if based primarily on slavery. Modern historians, however, almost universally agree that slavery was the priomary cause of the War. Slavery was finally resolved on the battlefield. The Civil War was the most costly war in American history. The casualties were horendous. Military historians often refer to it as the firtst modern war. American blacks played a major role in the conflict. The black role in the Federal armnies was so importyant that even the Confederacy at the end of the War was considering the arming of blacks.

Emancipation Proclamation (January 1863)

The Emancipation Proclamation is one of the key documents in American history. Not other document except perhaps the Declaration of Independence had a more revolutionary impact on America. The Proclamation itself was closely tied to the progress of the War. Like many other steps on race issues, it was not taken by Congress, but was a presidential proclamation. President Abraham Lincoln had wanted to act sooner on the slavery issue, but was afraid that Confederate victories would make emancipation look like an act of desperation. Only after the Federal victory at Antitem (September 1862), did he feel confident to proceed. President Lincoln on January 1, 1863 declared that all "... slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, ... then ... in rebellion ... forever free." It was a half measure to be sure. The slaves in the border states were not freed. It did signal, however, a fundamental shift in Federal policy. The War was now to be fought, not only to preserve the Union, but to free the slaves. One of the interesting aspects of the Emancipation Proclamation is its very legalistic tone, in sharp contrast to the soaring retoric of his Gettysburg Address or the Second Inagural.

The 13th Amendment

President Lincoln knew that emancipation by presidential order was highly tenuous given the composition of the Taney Court. Emancipation by legislative action was constitytionally more sound, but even this was not court proff. The only sure way of achieving permanent emancipation was amending the Constitution. This was a very difficult process. After the Bill of Rights, by the time of the Civil War there had only been two amendments approved to the Constitution. It proved to be a difficult effort. Despiite the absence of the slave states, there was considerable opposition. Almost all the Democrats opposed the proposed amendment. It took all of Lincoln's political skills to guide the Amendment through Congress and send it to the state legislatures for ratification. It is one of the shortest and most terse of the amendments. Several hundred thousand men died to get those few words added to the Constitution.

Reconstruction

After the Civil War, the Federal Government began a process of Reconstruction. The Federal Government descipte Southern critics, persued a soft peace. Southern soldeiers were allowed toi simply return home after afirming loyalty. Lee's soldiers after surrender were not even interned. The same was true of Johnston's soldiers in North Carolina who surrendered soon after. Blacks for the future. White southerners attepted to intoduce a legal system which kept the freed slaves in a state of servitude. Their primary instrument was the Black Codes (1865). They resstricted the rights of Blacks and limited economic and educatioinal opportunities. White southerners formed a secret paramilitary white supremacist organization, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). The KKK terrorized blacks with beatings, whippings, burning of homes and lynching. Radical Republicans in Congress persue a policy aimed at protecting southern Blacks. Here the quarled with President Johnson (1864-69). President Grant was more supportive (1869-77). The central step taken was the passage of the 13-15 amendments which abolished slavery and guaranted the civil rights, including the right to vote, of the freed slaves and guaranteed the equal protection of the law. (The Emancipation proclamationThere was an execyive order and open to legal chgalenge.) The slaves were freed, Reconstruction brought great hope for change in the South. There were some considerable gains made. Schools were established and Blacks elected to public office. The Freedman's Bureau was established. After President Hayes (1877-81) withdrew Federal troops from the South, the white majority began to take away the civil rights that the freed slaves had briefly experienced.

Sources

Ely, Melvin Patrick. Israel on the Appomattox

Horton, James Oliver and Louis E. Horton. Slavery and the Making of America (Oxford University Press, 2004), 254p.

Jacobs. Harriet. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself (1861). This book was originally published under the pseudonym Linda Brent. The book was at first dismissed as a fabrication but is today widely considered factual.

Created: May 25, 2002
Last updated: 8:16 PM 9/6/2015