Figure 1.--This amazingly life-like image comes to us from 2nd centuray AD Roman Egypt. I think his name is written on the front of his garment, but do not know what it says. This portrait ws found at Faiyum, a city in Middle Egypt, and the capital of the Faiyum Governorate. It is located 130 Km southwest of Cairo and occupies part of the ancient site of Crocodilopolis. Many famous Roman death masks and mummy portraits have been found at Faiyum. The Egyptians continued to burying their dead in contrast to the Roman preference for cremation. The death masks and portraits were painted on wood in a pigmented wax technique called encaustic. The painting suggests this boy died as a child.

Under the reign of Ptolemy IV, Egypt became a virtual protecorate of Rome. This continued until Julius Ceasar met Cleopatra. She sought to create a kind of dual monarchy and the birth of their son, Cesarion, created the possibility for such a state. After Ceasar's assasination, Cleopatra fled Rome with Ceasrion. She again attempted to establish independence by supporting Anthony in the developing Roman civil war with Octavian (Augustus). Octavian defeated Cleopatra and Anthony at Actium--one of the great sea battles of history (31 BC). Cleopatra and Anthony fled to Egypt where both committed suicide (30 BC). Octavian had Ceasrion, still a boy, put to death. A live Cesarion as a son of Cesar would have been a threat to Octavian and Rome. With this Egypt became a proivince in the Roman Empire. Octavian, a consumate politican, depicted his rule as to the Egyptians as the successor to the pharaohs. He proceeded to dismantle the Ptolemaic monarchy and established his control. Egypt became his personal estate, an emense source of wealrh. He appointed a prefect to rule Egypt, but limited the terms. This essentially depoliticized the country. Egypt was ruled by Roman officials backed by a Roman garrisons strengthened by locl auxilaries. This continued for a decade until Roman rule was firmly established. Business was conducted along the principles and procedures of Roman law. The local administration was changed to the Roman liturgic system under which the ownership of property brought an obligation for public service. The political system formalized the privileges associated with Helanistic culture and social background. Egypt played an important role in the Roman Empire. It was an province that rivaled Gaul in value. Egypt's primary value was its agricultural richness and was a major supplier grain. Roman Egypt benefit from the stability of Roman rule and enjoyed an era of prosperity. Some trouble was caused by religious conflicts between the Greeks and the Jews, Rome's incorporation of Egypt inspired a fascination for Egyptian art and culture. Obelisks appeared in the fora. A small pyrmid was built in Rome. The cult of Isis, the Egyptian mother goddess, became a major force throughout the Empire. Marcus Aurelius brought oppressive taxation resulting in a revolt (139 AD). The Romans supressed the revolt, but it took several years. This Bucolic War damaged the Egyptian economy and marked the beginning of economic decline of Roman Egypt. Even so, a series of Roman generals in Egypt declared themselves emperor and attempted to use Egypt as a base to seize control of the Empire.

Ptolemy IV (222-204 BC)

Ptolemy IV Philopator was the fourth of the Egyptian Ptolemaic Dynasty. Philopator means 'father-loving'. He was the son of Ptolemy III and Berenice II of Egypt. The decline of the Ptolemaic dynasty began under his reign. His reign began with the murder of his mother. Historians depict him as a weak ruler, always under the dominion of favorites, both male and female. They appear to have indulged his vices and with him distrcted, conducted the affairs of government as they pleased. A major concern was the encroachments of Antiochus III the Great on Coele-Syria--another Diadochin state. Conflict arose in the border state of Judea. The Ptolemaic Egyptian victory of Raphia secured the northern borders of the kingdom for the remainder of Ptolomey IV's reign (217 BC). The necessary arming of Egyptians had a disruptive impact on the native population of Egypt, many not supportive of foreign (Potomaic rule. This led to the revolt of Upper (southern) Egypt under the pharaohs Harmachis and Ankmachis. This was a kingdom that controlled large areas of the Nile Valley and disrupted Ptolomeic Egypt for almost 20 years. Ptolomey in the Egyptian tradition married his sister Arsinoe. The two founded a cult as the Father-loving Gods--Theoi Philopatores. Among their children were Ptolemy V Epiphanes, who married Cleopatra I Syra, daughter of Antiochus III and Laodice. Ptolemy IV died in the summer of 204. His wife, Arsinoe III, attempted to rule as a pharoh. Two of his most powerful ministers ordered her killed. Under his reign, Egypt became a virtual protecorate of Rome.

Cleopatra (69-30 BC)

Egypt as a Roman protectorate continued until Julius Ceasar met Cleopatra. As Ceasar is one of the most important historical figures, Cleopatra is one of the best known historical female figures. She is a remarkable figure. Unlike the populasr image--influenced both by Augustus' propaganda and Shskespeare's play, she was apparently not a great beauty. Despite this she seems to have beguiled two of the most powerful men of the age--Julius Ceasar and Mark Anthony. Just how she did this we do not know. Some authors insist that it was her education and wit. That of course would be unusual for the time, but it seems to have been the case. Cleopatra originally ruled jointly with her father Ptolemy XII Auletes and later with her brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whom following Egyptian custom she married. Ptolemy XIV was her 10-year old younger brother. This created an unstable situation because the female partner was susposed to defer to the male partner. The courtiers around her little brotgher deposed her (48 BC). At the time Rome was involved in a civil war and Ceasar had just defeated Pompey. The defeated Pompey sought refuge in Egyopt hoping to build a new army. The Egyptians hoping to ingratiate themselves with the victorious Ceasar, executed Pompey. Ceasar who admired Pompey was reportedly furious when he arrived in Alexandria. The courtiers around her brother had badly miscalculated how to deal with the Romans. Cleopatra was much more clever. In a gamble that could have meant death at the court's hand, she sneaked back into Alexandria and somehow managed to convince Ceasar to back her reign. She and Ceasar became not only lovers, but allies. Cleopatra's major goal was to be an independent ally, not a vassal of Rome. [Schiff] Once connected with Ceasar, they seemed to have sought or at least considered the possibility of creating a dual monarchy, although Rome was still officially a republic. In fact, no one knows what they were planning. The birth of their son, Cesarion, created the possibility for a combined monarchy. Ceasar's assasination abruptly ended this. Cleopatra needed a new ally and Mark Anthony as Ceasar's most important general seemed his heir apparent. Ceasar legal heir was his grand-nephew Octavian. A new civil war emerged. Octavian was not a military man, but managed to outwit Anthony. We know little about Cleopatra's relationship with Anthony before Ceasar's asasination. She fled Rome immediately because as a foreigner she was so unpopular, taking Ceasar's son Cesarion with her. Her alliance with Anthony came later when they met at Tarsus (41 BC). She needed him and could offer support in the civil war. She again attempted to establish independence by supporting Anthony in the Roman civil war with Octavian (Augustus). Octavian defeated Cleopatra and Anthony at Actium--one of the great sea battles of history (31 BC). Cleopatra and Anthony fled to Egypt where both committed suicide (30 BC). Octavian had Ceasrion, still a boy, put to death. A live Cesarion as a son of Cesar would have been a threat to Octavian and as a son of Cleopatra to Rome. Clepatra died the last of the Ptolemies.

Roman Province: Aegyptus

With the death of Cleopatra abd Cesaruin, Egypt became a province in the Roman Empire--Aegyptus. It continued to be important because of its agricultural bounty. Octavian (Augustus), a consumate politican, depicted his rule as to the Egyptians as the successor to the pharaohs. He proceeded to dismantle the Ptolemaic monarchy and established his direct control. Egypt became Augustus' highly profitable personal estate, an emense source of wealth. He appointed a prefect to rule Egypt, but limited the terms. This essentially depoliticized the country. Egypt was ruled by Roman officials backed by a Roman garrisons strengthened by locl auxilaries. This continued for a decade until Roman rule was firmly established. The impact of Roman conquest was at first to promote the position of the Greeks and of Hellenism against ntavist Egyptian influences. Some of the offices and names of offices under the Ptolemaic rule were retained. Others were retakned. Even when retined, often but the function and administration procedures changed. The Romans introduced needed changes in the administrative system. The goal was to achieve greater efficiency to increase tax revenue. The duties of the prefect of Aegyptus were threefold. First he was responsible for maintaiing military security through command of the legions and cohorts. Second, he was responsible for overseeing finance and taxation. Third he was responsible for the administration of justice. Business was conducted along the principles and procedures of Roman law. The local administration was changed to the Roman liturgic system under which the ownership of property brought an obligation for public service. The political system formalized the privileges associated with Helanistic culture and social background. Egypt played an important role in the Roman Empire. It was an province that rivaled Gaul in value. Egypt's primary value was its agricultural richness and was a major supplier grain. Roman Egypt benefit from the stability of Roman rule and enjoyed an era of prosperity. Some trouble was caused by religious conflicts between the Greeks and the Jews, Rome's incorporation of Egypt inspired a fascination for Egyptian art and culture. Obelisks appeared in the fora. A small pyrmid was built in Rome. The cult of Isis, the Egyptian mother goddess, became a major force throughout the Empire. Marcus Aurelius brought oppressive taxation resulting in a revolt (139 AD). The Romans supressed the revolt, but it took several years. This Bucolic War damaged the Egyptian economy and marked the beginning of economic decline of Roman Egypt. Even so, a series of Roman generals in Egypt declared themselves emperor and attempted to use Egypt as a base to seize control of the Empire.

Byzantine Province

There is no precise date for the beginning of Byzantine Egypt. But it is generally seen as the history of Egypt and Cyrenaica (eastern Libua) beginning with the division of the Roman Empire (395 AD) and ending with the Muslim conquest (640s). Rome rapidly replaced the Ptolemaic system . There were many varied changes. And this continued with the division of the Empire. More reforms followed (early 4th century). They set the basis for another 250 years of relative prosperity in Aegyptus until The Muslim conquest. As the Byzantine state developed There was a greater rigidity and increasingly oppressive imperial state control. Imperial efforts to control Christian church theology created considerable opposition to Byzantine rule. There was at the time widespread disagreement among Christians as to church dictrine. There were many popular apocryphal books in circulation. And the Council of Nicea had not ended the Arian Heresy. From an early point the Byzatine emperors had adopted Caesaropapism, the political theory in which the the civil authority (Emperor) is also the supreme head of the church. In the west the two tended to be separate which in the medieval West would set up major conflis between emperor/king and pope. And from the very beginning, the Emperor Cobstantine sought to establish one unified theology with the Council of Nicea. He was no interested in thological issues, he just wanted one theology which everyone would accept. The Byzantines subsivided Aegyptus for administrative purposes into a number of smaller provinces. Separate civil and military offices were created called the praeses and the dux (the origin of the medieval European duke). Emperor Justinian concluded that this arrangement was failing. He moved to combine civil and military power in the hands of the dux with a civil deputy (the praeses). This was intended as a counterweight to the increasingly importnt power of the church. There was no longer any pretense of local autonomy. The importance of the soldiery and ths opportinity for abuse and coruption was more noticeable. The militry's power and influence was more pervasive in the routine of town and village life than had ever been the case under Western Roman rule.

Sources

Schiff, Stacy. Cleopata: A Life (Little, Brown, 2010), 368p.

Created: 5:26 AM 10/5/2007
Last updated: 4:29 AM 9/6/2016