Figure 1.--The Portuguese colonial system was highly descriminatory, but not as rigid as Apartheid in South Africa or Jim Crow laws in the American South. This photograph shows a Portuguese church congregation in Bela Vista. Bengo Province. Notice that there are no obviously African, but some dark mestiço faces. A reader writes, "Clearly this was a Portuguese congregation. However it seems to me that there are some mestiço faces. The first boy on the left in the front row could be African and at least he is mestiço." The photo was taken October 23, 1936.

Indigenous states were developing in southern Africa before the arrival of the Europeans. The most important in the area that is now Angola was the Kongo Kingdom. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach southern Africa. The Portuguese were attempting to find a sea route to the East and during the 15th expeditions century gradually moved south along the Atlantic coast of Africa. Along with this effort, the Portuguese began setting up trading posts. One of the most important commodities, especially in Angola, proved to be slaves. There were attempts to establish constructive relations with native kingdoms in the interior, but over time this was undermined by the Portugese participation in the slave trade. Other European countries began setting up trading posta and eventually colonies along the African coast, but Angola remained in Portuguese hands. There was, however, no attempt by the Portuguese to settle Portuguese families in Angola. The Portuguese used Angola as a kind of prison colony. They exiled criminals to the colony. Thus most of the Portuguese who settled there as late as the 19th century were criminal exiles--the degredados. The degredados were heavily involved in the slave trade. They also were involved in a range of vilolent and criminal activities in the colony. This had a profound impact on how the Anolans viewed the Portuguese. Portuguese settlement changed in the 20th century when landless peasants began emigrating to Angola. Many settled down in towns and sought livlihoods other than farming. Here they competed with mestiços (mixed race people), Portuguese descent, and urban Angolans who were already established in the towns and developing cities. The new settlers were poor, bringing little capital, and lacking in education or any real commitment to Angola. Portugal saw promoting emigration to Angola was a way of civiling the colony. Descrimination against the indigenous Angolan population as well as mestiços fueled the independence movement which developed after World War II. After the revolution in Portugal, Angola was granted independence (1975). The country became a Cold War battlefield when two political movements that had emerged during the independence struggle for control. South Africa and Cuba (as a Soviet proxy) intervened.

Pre-history

Very little is known about the first people living in what is now Angola. There is evidence of human habitation (over 25,000 years). These are the Khoi and San peoples. The first people for which significant remains have been found are believed to have been Khoisan speakers with a neolithic culture--today often called bushmen. This is because Bantu tribes migrating south drove them from the more productive land.

Bantu Kingdoms

Small groups of Bantu tribesmen began migrating south into Angola (800-1000 AD). Historians differ somewhat on the chronology, but the Bantu migration increased narkedly (14th century AD). It is at this time that theuy clearly are the dominant ethnic group (the 14th century or earlier). The Bantu were a more culturally advanced people with iron age technology. They soon became the dominant group. The absorbed or drove out much of the Khoisan-speaking peoples. The population has been estimared at about 4 million people at the time the Portuguese arrived (15th century). Indigenous states were developing in southern Africa before the arrival of the Europeans. The most important in the area that is now Angola was the Kongo, Loango, Ndongo (Mbundo people), with smaller kingdoms such as the Lunda and Ovimbundu. The most important state in Central Africa was the Kongo Kihgdom, They were centered along the Altantic coast the area between central and southern Africa. The Kongo Kingdom were the most important of a series of states that arose along the Atlantic coast known as the Middle Atlantic kingdoms. Northern Angola was only part of the Kongo domains. The territirial expanse varied over time. The other kindoms were for the most part subject states paying tribute to the Kongo, but whose territory was more centered in Angloa. The country's name is derives its name from the Bantu kingdom of Ndongo. The word for king was ngola. These kingdoms did not have borders mirroring Angola's modern borders, but rather encompased area to the north in the Congo basin, but included parts of what is now Angola--primarily norther Angola. The leader of the important Kongo kingdom, mani-kongo (King Nzinga Nkuwu) converted to Christianity during the early Portuguese period. His successor, King Afonso, was also a Christian. The early relationship proved beneficial to both the Kongo and The Portuguese who traded with each other. They also had a similar social structure. The Portuguese did not move inland and threaten the Kongo and relied on trade with the Kongo and African kingdoms to provision its ships passing along the Angolan coast, This relationship began to deteriorate, however, as the slave trade became an increasingly important part of the Portuguese colonial economy. The Bantu kingdoms overlapped the Portuguese era and lasted nominally into the early-20th century. The Portuguese, however, broke the power of the African kindoms in a war with the Ndongo (17th century).

Portuguese Era (1482-1975)

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach southern Africa. The Portuguese were attempting to find a sea route to the East and during the 15th expeditions century gradually moved south along the Atlantic coast of Africa. Portuguese navigator Diego Cão was the first to reach what is now Angola (1482). After Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, the Portuguese developed a lucrative trade with India, Southeast Asia, and China. Along with this effort, the Portuguese began setting up trading posts. Tradingboast along the Angolan coast became an important link in the Portuguese trading network, helping to supply the Portuguese ships. d Luanda was founded as a trading settlement (1575). One of the most important commodities, especially in Angola, proved to be slaves. Many of the slaves imported by Portugese planters in Brazil came from Angola. There were attempts to establish constructive relations with native kingdoms in the interior, but over time this was undermined by the Portugese participation in the slave trade. Other European countries began setting up trading posta and eventually colonies along the African coast, but Angola remained in Portuguese hands. There was, however, no attempt by the Portuguese to settle Portuguese families in Angola. The Portuguese used Angola as a kind of prison colony. They exiled criminals to the colony. Thus most of the Portuguese who settled there as late as the 19th century were criminal exiles--the degredados. The degredados were heavily involved in the slave trade. They also were involved in a range of vilolent and criminal activities in the colony. As part of the British anti-slavery campaign, Portugal agreed to end slavery (1836), with a 20 year grace period. Even after slavery was formally abolished, however, forced labor continued until the 1950s. This had a profound impact on how the Anolans viewed the Portuguese. For centuries, the Portugese made no attempt to develop the interior. This only began after the European Scramble for Aftrica (19th century). The Berlin Conference fixed the colony's borders (1885). British and Portuguese investment helped develop mining, railways, and agriculture. As a result, Portuguese settlement began to change (late-19th century). Portugal was one of the poorest countries in Europe. Landless peasants began emigrating to Angola. Many settled down in towns and sought livlihoods other than farming. Here they competed with mestiços (mixed race people), Portuguese descent, and urban Angolans who were already established in the towns and developing cities. The new settlers were poor, bringing little capital, and lacking in education or any real commitment to Angola. Portugal saw promoting imigration to Angola was a way of civilizing the colony. António Salazar established the Fascist indluenced Estado Novo (New State) in Portugal (early 1930s). Under Salazar, Angola was expected to survive on its own resources. Portugal did not build a social and economic infrastructure. It also did not make needed long-term investments in the colony's development.

Independence Movement and Colonial War (1950s-75)

Descrimination against the indigenous Angolan population as well as mestiços fueled the independence movement which developed after World War II. African and mestiço-led associations with increasingly political goals began to appear in Angola (1950s). Portuguese autorities attempted to supress them. Leaders were arrested and jailed or exiled. This drove the political movement underground and toward increasingly radical goals. These groups becaming increasingly well organized to begin a serious campaign for indepedence (1960s). The independence movement was, however, fragmented along ethnic/tribal lines. Personal animosities also complicated the situation. The independence movement was strongest among the mestiço and African population in the growing cities where the population had some minimal education and was more politicized. The African rural population was increasingly alienasted during the 1960s because of not only economic decline, but Portuguese policies which included land seizures and forced labor. The independence groups were thus able to recruit adherents in the countryside. The result was a series of violent events in urban and rural areas that marked the beginning of a long and often ineffective armed struggle for independence. Portugal attempted to use military means to continue colonial control. The Portuguese army, tiring continued warfare in Angola amd Mozambique overthrew the Portuguese government (1974). The revolution in Portugal dramatically changed the political situation both in Portugal and its colonies. The new Communist regime which took power in Portugal decided to leave Angola to its own devices. They withdrew from Angola, leavingthe colony's future tgo the three major anticolonial movements. After nearly five centuries of Portuguese influence and colonization, Angola finally achieved independence.

Independence (1975)

The Civil War left the MPLA in control of most of the country, but unable to fefeat UNITA in the bush.Neto declared the MPLA a Marxist-Leninist vanguard party (1975). At the time, many Africans continued believe that Soviet-style communism was the route to rapid economic development. He and the MPLA faced a danting task. Most of the Portuguese settlers left Angola with the Portuguese Army. They ran most of the colonies productive enterpriess, businesses and commercial farms. They were also much of the educated middle class, including doctors, technicians, and teachers. Thus not only was the country's infrastructure destroyed in the war, but the country did not have a trained, educated population to run a modern economy. Neto showed some flexibility in the economic shere. He permitted private economic activity in commercial and small-scale industry. He also sought economic relations with Western states, a necesity as this is where the market was for Angolan oil and other mineral exports. Even wuith Cuban support, however, the MPLA was unable to destroy the UNITA guerilla insurgency. And the country was devestated by the prolonged war and MPLA economic policies. Neto died (1979). José Eduardo dos Santos, the new MPLA leader, inherited the same difficult economic difficulties that Neto faced. Little progress had been made. Much of the Government's income, mostly oil exports, were used up by the military costs associated with combating the the UNITA insurgency which South Africa continued to support. The MPLA Government for more than a decade continued to be largely dependent on oil exports, Cuban troops, and Soviet-supplied weapons. The Cubans and Sovirts were in the incongrous role of defending Western oil interests. In the meantime, Angola made little economic progress. A United States-sponsored peace agreement was the first step in breaking the political impasse between the MPLA and UNITA (1988).

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Created: 8:21 PM 10/5/2010
Last updated: 3:27 AM 7/5/2012