Figure 1.-- Tombouctou/Timbuktu as the trans Saharan trade developed with the introduction of canels, became a hub for trade in salt, gold, ivory, slaves, and other commodities between black Sub-Saharan Africans and Mediterranean civilization of the Maghreb or Maghrib. The trade began in the final years of the classical era with the introduction of the the camel (about 200 AD), but became dominated by the Arabs/Berbers and Tuareg after the Arab conquest of the Maghreb (8th century AD). Today Timbuktu is used to mean and isolated locality and the edge of civilization. In reality at its peak, it was a rich and vibrant trading center connecting far-flung regions. It was a meeting place for African scholars and a center of learning where thousands of manuscripts and books were written, and where universities much older than Harvard or Oxford were founded. The learning was, however, largely Islamic religious works. Thus Timbuktu like other centers of learning in the Islamic world, played little or no part in the making of the modern world. Timbuktu thus even today looks much like it did over a milenia earlier. This postcard shows Timbuktu in the 1910s. The city in those times was part of the colony of French Sudan. (The French were constantly reorganizing their West African colonies.) We can see a street scene. Here we have the traditional image of this Muslim (but not Arab) city, where the women were not forced to wear the veil and the children, and even the younger teenagers, commonly went unclothed.

The recorded history of the region in which we now find Mali began with Ghana Empire (4th century AD). It gradually expanded at at its pealk included eastern Senegal, southwest Mali, and southern Mauritania (10th century). It dominated African trade across the Sahara with the Arab states to the north, a major source of wealth. Trade items included ivory, gold, and slaves. The Ghana Empire disintegrated (13th century). It is at this time that the Mali Empire rises. This new Empire reached its peak under Mansa Musa (14th century). Musa seized Tombouctou and Mali became a center of Muslim scholarship. This was at the same time that the Renaissance was beginning to remake Europe and modern science began to develop. In Mali the focus continued to be on Islam and religious scholarship. Tombouctou / Timbuktu and Djenné were also key links in the eastern trans-Sahara caravan trade. Over time the Mali Empire declined and by the time the Europeans were beginning to make inroads in coastal areas had desintegrated (17th century). The nomadic Tuareg came to dominate the northern area of the former Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire was founded to the east much earlier. It centered on the Middle Niger Rivert (8th century), but gradually shifted to Gao. The Songhai expanded west as the Mali Empire declined. The Songhai seized Tombouctou / Timbuktu (1468). This was a significant event as Tombouctou / Timbuktu was such an important trading center and thus source of wealth. The major Songhai rulers at the peak of the Empire were Sonni 'Ali Ber (r.1464–92) and Askia Muhammad I (r.1492–1528). A Moroccan Arab army from the north conquered the Sobghai (1591). The Moroccans established important military bases at Gao, Tombouctou / Timbuktu, and Djenné. Under Moroccan Arab rule, a military caste developed--the Arma. They controlled the countryside from these bases. Over time Arma rule desintegrated into competing principalities (late-18th century). Al-Hajj 'Umar from the Tukulor tribe launched a Muslim jihad against the remaining pagans (mid-19th century). He conquered Ségou and Macina mid-19th century (1862) and sacked Tombouctou / Timbuktu (1863). He was killed in a rebellion (1864). It is at this time that the Europeans began penetrating the interior of Africa and formally establisjing colonies. The French appeared in the region (about 1880). Samory Touré, a Malinké (Mandingo) leader opposed French colonization (1892-98). The French complete their conquest with the capture of Sikasso. The French called their new colony French Sudan (Soudan Français), although it was located far west of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It became part of French West Africa. The French introduced modern technology and infrastructure to the refgion for the first time. The French built the Dakar-Bamako railway and launched a Niger Delta development scheme. The Sudanese became French citizens, with representation in the French parliament (1946). Under the constitution of 1946, the franchise was enlarged and a territorial assembly was established. Universal suffrage was established in 1957, when enlarged powers were conferred on the territorial assembly, which was also given the right to elect a council of ministers responsible for the administration of internal affairs. In 1958, under the constitution of the Fifth French Republic, French Sudan became an autonomous republic, called the Sudanese Republic, within the French Community. After a failed effort to form the Mali Federation with neigboring countries, Mali declared independence (1960). The country quickly lapsed into dictatorial rule. A coup ended years of dictatorship and ushered in democratic government (1991). President Alpha Konare won the country's first truly democratic presidential election (1992). He was reelected (1997). Respecting a two-term constitutional limit, President Konare stepped down and was succeeded by Amadou Toure (2002).

Pre-history

Archaeologists have only recently begun to work on the pre-history of the West Africa and the Sahael in particular. The Sahael is today clearly defined as the ecoclimatic and biogeographic zone of transition between the Sahara desert in the North and the more watered Sudanian Savannas in the south. These zones have varied over time a a result of climate change, affecting the history of the area. The archeological work is still tenative and the dates only rough estmates. Early humanoids appeared to have reached West Africa (around 12,000 BC). At the time, the Sahara was not a baren desert, but a vast savannah. Archaeologists have found microlithic tool industriess. Microliths are small stone tool, commonly made of flint or chert which were materials relatively easy to work. The area was a vast savannah where pastoral tribes tended herds and used chiseled stone blades and spears. The tribesmen of Guinea and the forested regions of the coast were without microliths for thousands of years, suggesting a more primitive culture. They utilized bone tools. Anatomically modern humans reached West Africa (about 5,000 BC). Sedentary farming began to replace simple hunter-gatering. There is evidence of domesticated cattle and limited agriculture focusing on cereal crops. Important changes began to occur with more sophisticated tools appearing such as fish hooks and harpoons (about 3000 BC). Desertification becomes increasing pronounced and the Sahara Desert appeared. It is at this time that ancient Egypt rises in the east as people displaced by desertification migrated toward the Nile, a perpetual source of water. There was nothing like the Nile in the west. An important migration of Sahelian herders and farmers encountered the gatherers of the Guinea region including what is now southeastern Mali. Flint for tool making was more available and this mnade the use of microliths in hunting much easier. This migration occurred as at time of widespreas desertification and almost certainly was aesult of the desertification and appearance of the Sahara. One result was the isolation of West Africa from the cultural and technological developments in Europe and the African Mediterranean coast. Iron age technology reached the area (about 1300 BC). Iron required advanced metalurgy, but had the advantage that it was a very common element. This meant that the smelting and forging of iron tools and weapons was possible. This led to both improved weapns and tools. Iron farming implements allowed farmers to expand agricultural harvests resulting in surplus crops. This made possible the development of urban populations, first city states and eventualy impressive expansive empires. Similar developments occurred to the north, but the Sahara had meant that these developments occurred largely in isolation. European peoples migrated into and populated what is now North Africa--The Magreb. This is the origins of the Berber people. The Sub-Saharan Africans and the Europeans/North Africans eventually came in contact during ancient times. This is not well documented, but the contact appears to be brought about by Phoencian traders sailing south out of the Mediterranean. This is not documnted. We do know that contact was made with Carthage. There was also a trans-Saharan trade in gold with the Sahara Berbers. [Herodotus] Such trade was limited until the camel was introduced. Trade across the Sahra would have been limited had it not been for the Cammel, The dromedary, or one-humped camels, is native to the Middle East and the Horn of Africa. They were introduced to the Sahara as part of trade caravans from the Arabian Peninsula (about 200 AD). Unlike the horses it replaced, the camel was perfectly suited to the harsh Sahara climate. Its soft feet also allowed it to easily move over sand. The amels of course did not carry the slaves, but te caravans with whih they moved could not have crossed the Sahara wthout the camels. As a result, Mediterranean goods have been found in burial pits as far south as northern Nigeria. West Africans exported gold, cotton cloth, metal ornaments, and leather goods north across the trans-Saharan trade routes, in exchange for copper, horses, salt, textiles, and beads. Eventually ivory, slaves, and kola nuts were added to the trade.

Ghana Empire (4th-13th centuries)

The recorded history of the region in which we now find Mali began with Ghana Empire (4th century AD). The Ghana microlithire and subsequent West African empires were based on dominating the trans-Saharan trade routes which connected Sub-Sahran Africa with European Meditrranan civilization. The Ghana Empire gradually expanded at at its pealk included eastern Senegal, southwest Mali, and southern Mauritania (10th century). It dominated African trade across the Sahara with the Arab states to the north, a major source of wealth. Trade items included ivory, gold, and slaves. The Ghana Empire was the first great African empire to participare in the Saharan slave trade. Subsequent empires were Muslim empires.

The Malian Empire (13th-17th century)

The Ghana Empire disintegrated (13th century). It is at this time that the Mali Empire rises. This new Empire reached its peak under Mansa Musa (14th century). Musa seized Tombouctou / Tinmuktu and Mali became a center of Muslim scholarship. This was at the same time that the Renaissance was beginning to remake Europe and modern science began to develop. In Mali the focus continued to be on Islam and religious scholsrship. Tombouctou . Timbuktu and Djenné were also key links in the eastern trans-Sahara caravan trade. Over time the Mali Empire declined and by the time the Europeans were beginning to make inroads in coastal areas had desintegrated (17th century). The nomadic Tuareg came to dominate the northern area of the former Mali Empire.

Songhai Empire (8th-16th centuries)

The Songhai Empire was founded to the east of the Malian Empire even before the Malian Empire, but it was at first not as importahnt. It initially centered on the Middle Niger Rivert (8th century), but gradually shifted to Gao. The Songhai expanded west as the Mali Empire declined. The Songhai seized Tombouctou/Timbuktu (1468). This was a significant event as Tombouctou / Timbuktu was such an important trading center and thus source of wealth. The major Songhai rulers at the peak of the Empire were Sonni 'Ali Ber (r.1464–92) and Askia Muhammad I (r.1492–1528).

Moroccan Era: The Arma (Late-16th-19th centuries)

A Moroccan Arab army from the north conquered the Sobghai (1591). The Moroccans established important military bases at Gao, Tombouctou/ Timbuktu, and Djenné. Under Moroccan Arab rule, a military caste developed--the Arma. They controlled the countryside from these bases.

Competing Principalities (late-18th-19th centuries)

Over time Arma rule desintegrated into competing principalities (late-18th century). Two Islamic states arose to wage jihad against both non-believers and French colonialism. Al-Hajj 'Umar from the Tukulor tribe launched a Muslim jihad against the remaining pagans (mid-19th century). He conquered Ségou and Macina mid-19th century (1862) and sacked Tombouctou / Timbuktu (1863). Unar was killed on campaign when his powder magazine blew up a rebellion (1864). Another jihadist movement was the Islamic Wassoulou/Mandinkan Empire (1878-98). Samory Touré amased a substantial, well-armed army to fight the French and forced conversion of the native animist local population. A major issue for the jihadist movemrnts was slavery. Islamists resisted French efforts to ablosh slavery. Ties with Morocco may have been a factor.

The French Era (1880s-1960)

It after the dall of the great African empires and during the era of competing principalities that the Europeans began penetrating the interior of Africa and formally establishing colonies. The French appeared in the region (about 1880). Samory Touré, a Malinké (Mandingo) leader opposed French colonization (1892-98). The French complete their conquest with the capture of Sikasso. The French called their new colony French Sudan (Soudan Français), although it was located far west of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It became part of French West Africa. The French introduced modern technology and infrastructure to the refgion for the first time. The French built the Dakar-Bamako railway and launched a Niger Delta development scheme.

Post World War II French Policies

The Sudanese became French citizens, with representation in the French parliament (1946). Under the constitution of 1946, the franchise was enlarged and a territorial assembly was established. Universal suffrage was established in 1957, when enlarged powers were conferred on the territorial assembly, which was also given the right to elect a council of ministers responsible for the administration of internal affairs. In 1958, under the constitution of the Fifth French Republic, French Sudan became an autonomous republic, called the Sudanese Republic, within the French Community.

Independence (1960)

After a failed effort to form the Mali Federation with neigboring countries, Mali declared independence (1960). The country quickly lapsed into dictatorial rule. A coup ended years of dictatorship and ushered in democratic government (1991). President Alpha Konare won the country's first truly democratic presidential election (1992). He was reelected (1997). Respecting a two-term constitutional limit, President Konare stepped down and was succeeded by Amadou Toure (2002).

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Created: 9:19 PM 2/24/2013
Last updated: 4:54 PM 11/10/2015