South Sudan: History

South Sudan civil war
Figure 1.--This press photo was taken in Labone, a town in Eastern Equatoria, South Sudan. The press caption reads, "Until 1995 this school for 'unaccompanied minors' was based at Palotaka near the front line around Torit. Since then the Government forces have taken Palotaka and the 2000 children have fled from place to place, subject to air raids and ground attacks. They are accompanied by only one adult – their headmaster Sebed William Garang. Michael AJok (shown) is disabled: 'When we are attacked the other boys have to carry me because my wheelchair is not in good condition. When I grow up I want to be a medical assistant.'”

Civil war broke out even before independence was achieved. President Gaafar Muhammad an-Nimeiry ended the 17-year-civil war in the rebellious Christian south by signing the Addis Adaba Agreement, allowing for the internal autonomy of Equatoria. A secular government might have been able to make the compromise work with autonomy and power sharing with the African Christian south. Islamicists who came to dominate the Arab north were not willing to compromise, but instead set out to Islamicize the south. Nimeri changes his policy. Renewed violence in the south the growing strength of the Muslim Brotherhood in the north were factors here. Nimeri amended Sudanese law to bring it into line with the strict and punitive Islamic legal code, the sharia (1983). He also abrogated the Addis Adaba Agreement, ending southern autonomy bringing Equatoriana back under central administration, meaning northern rule. The attempt to impose Sharia led to renewed civil war between the Arab Islamic north and the Christian African south. The Arab north possessed most of the modern weapons. Open warfare broke out (1983). Air attacks were carried out on southern villages. The victory of the NIF Muslim fundamentalists result in the intensification of Government efforts to defeat the southern rebellion. The rebellion is led by the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA). The war with the northern secularists acquired the character of Jihad with added ethnic undertones. Newly Impassioned Arab mujaheddin move south with the Army to confront the African Christian infidels. This was poorly reported in the Western press and ignored in the Arab media. Government forces seized women and children and brought north as slaves, An aspect of the Mahdist tradition was the widely accepted belief among fundamentalist Muslims was that that the Koran condones the enslavement of non-Muslims. The result is devastation and suffering. An estimated 2 million people were killed, mostly Christian civilians. Another 3 million southerners became displaced refugees. The Government succeeded in devastating the south and killing civilians, but is, however, unable to defeat the SPLA militarily. The cost of pursuing the war finally convinced even the Islamicists that compromise was needed (mid-1990s). The government and the SPLA agree to hold a referendum on self-determination in the south (1998). A second Sudanese civil war developed and only ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005). Part of that agreement was the restoration of southern autonomy. It also provided for a referendum to allow the people of southern Sudan to determine their political future. The Republic of South Sudan in East Africa is the world's newest country (2011). It is the southern area of the Sudan with its capital at Juba. Independence followed several decades of civil war. The southern Sudanses voted decisively for independence (2011). There are many difference between north and south, including religions, languages, ethnicity, food and traditions. The north is culturally Arab, but many are dark skinned.

Slave Trade

The slave trade in the Sudan has ancient origins. There is until the 19th century, however, only limited information on the dimensions of the slave trade. Geography was an important factor. The Sudan is composed of two different regions. The largely African, equitorial south and a Saharan north. The Blue and White Niles join in Sudan to provide a water route north to the Mediterannean. This is the only watrer route through the vast Sahara Desert. It is importsant because it provided a route through which where African captives taken in the south could be readily marketed. Egypt itself was not a slave society, in part because the peasanty were basically serfs tied to the land. There were slaves in Egypt and other anient civilizations such as Greece and Rome. Unlike Egypt, these weee salave societies. And references to Nubians suggest that they enslaved in the Sudan or through Cushite slave markets. Some believe that Aesop was a Nubian. We certainly knew Nubian slaves. There are many references to Nubians in Roman manucripts. It must be remembered, however, thar slsavery in the ancient world was not a racial matter and thus Nubian did not equate with slave. Another complication is that most Africans in Rome were called Nubians, including those with no connection to Cush. We are not sure just how important Nubian slaves were to Rome. Give the ditance from Rome and the fact that Rome never occupied Cush/Nubia militarily, we suspect that Nubians made up a basically small proportion of the Roman slave population. Perhaps mpdern DNA studies will shed some light on this. The slave trade continued into the Christian era and then into the Muslim era. We know this because of the 652 treaty between the Kushites and Arab invaders under which Kush would pay an annual tribute. This may sound like a small number, but this was just the tribute and does not address the trade between Kush/Nubia and Egypt which was probably many time the number of Africans delivered as tribute. Unfortunately the historical record is very limited until the arrival of the British and efforts to wipe out the slave trade (19th century). The British certsainly sharply reduced the slave trade, but did not end it. Even after independence (1956), the slave trade comtinued. And it became a factor in the civil war following independence. Press reports of the slasve trade in Sudan continue to this day.

Anglo-Egyptian Condiminium

The South Sudan was part of the British and Egyptian condominium of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan which became independent as the Republic of the Sudan (1956). From the beginning, there were conflicts betwwen the African south and the Arab north. These conflicts were deeply routed in history. Northern Arabs for centuries pursued the slave trade in the Aftican south. This led to the First Sudanese Civil War and the formation of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region (1972-83). The Arabs contuinued the slave trade and use it to pursue pacification efforts.

First Civil War (1955-72)

Civil war broke out even before independence was achieved. President Gaafar Muhammad an-Nimeiry ended the 17-year-civil war in the rebellious Christian south by signing the Addis Adaba Agreement, allowing for the internal autonomy of Equatoria. A secular government might have been able to make the compromise work with autonomy and power sharing with the African Christian south.

Islamicists in the North

Islamicists who came to dominate the Arab north were not willing to compromise, but instead set out to Islamicize the south. Nimeiry changed his policy. Renewed violence in the south the growing strength of the Muslim Brotherhood in the north were factors here. Nimeiry amended Sudanese law to bring it into line with the strict and punitive Islamic legal code, the sharia (1983). He also abrogated the Addis Adaba Agreement, ending southern autonomy bringing Equatoriana back under central administration, meaning northern rule.

Renewed Civil War (1983- )

The attempt to impose Sharia led to renewed civil war between the Arab Islamic north and the Christian African south. The Arab north possessed most of the modern weapons. Open warfare broke out (1983). Air attacks were carried out on southern villages. The victory of the NIF Muslim fundamentalists resulted in the intensification of Government efforts to defeat the southern rebellion. The rebellion is led by the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA). The war with the northern secularists acquired the character of Jihad with added ethnic undertones. Newly Impassioned Arab mujaheddin move south with the Army to confront the African Christian infidels. This was poorly reported in the Western press and ignored in the Arab media. Government forces seized women and children and brought north as slaves, An aspect of the Mahdist tradition was the widely accepted belief among fundamentalist Muslims was that that the Koran condones the enslavement of non-Muslims. The result is devastation and suffering. An estimated 2 million people were killed, mostly Christian civilians. Another 3 million southerners became displaced refugees. The Government succeeded in devastating the south and killing civilians, but is, however, unable to defeat the SPLA militarily. The cost of pursuing the war finally convinced even the Islamicists that compromise was needed (mid-1990s).

Peace Accord

The government and the SPLA agree to hold a referendum on self-determination in the south (1998).

Rennewed Fighting

A second Sudanese civil war developed

Comprehensive Peace Agreement

The fighting between north and south only ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (2005). Part of that agreement was the restoration of southern autonomy. It also provided for a referendum to allow the people of southern Sudan to determine their political future.

Independence

The Republic of South Sudan in East Africa is the world's newest country (2011). It is the southern area of the Sudan with its capital at Juba. Independence followed several decades of civil war. The southern Sudanses voted decisively for independence (2011). There are many difference between north and south, including religions, languages, ethnicity, food and traditions. The north is culturally Arab, but many are dark skinned.

Civil War (2013)

Well before independence, South Sudan society was badly fractured between the historically domunant Dunka and the Neur. A substantial number of civilian casualties were the result of this ethnic tension while headlkines covered mostlt the conflict with the fundamentalist-dominated Islamic Government in Khartoum. An effort was made to end the ethnic tensions in the south at indepandence, Salva Kiir a Dinka became president and supporter Riek Machar, a Neur, became vice president. The power sharing did not work. President Kiir dismissed Machar and accused him of pllanning a coup. Fighting broke out between the Dinka-dominated Government and Neur rebels. And the ethnic tensiions involved has led to apauling attrocities. A U.N. official who conducted a fact-findung missiion described 'horror', including extrajudicial killings, sexual violence, and massacres committed at the hands of both the Dinka and Dur. Some 2.5 million people are believed to have died in the civil war between gthe north and south as a result of the fighting, attrocities, disease, and famine. Authorities are concerned that the rift between Machar and Kiir and their temperment may make the initial round of fighting the precursor of a long, brutal conflict is high. The issue appears to be historic dominant role of the Dinka, the largest tribal group in South Sudan. The conflict is not a simple matter. They like other tribal grouops are divided into different clans and subclans over a huge expanse of East Africa. After the Civil War with the south ended, manu military commandrs (often Dinka) claimed land. This appears to have been the case around Juba which is part of the reason why fighting broke out there. Also at issue is the countrty's oil resource. Much of it is located in Machar’s home region, Unity State, south of the border with Sudan. This was one reasion the Sudan Government did not want to grant independence to the south. Machar complains that the local people are not benefitting from the oil exports. He charges that the oil money has been used as a personal reward for the Dinka military commanders who fought the war for wimming the war against the Khartoum Government.








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Created: 1:34 AM 6/21/2013
Last updated: 8:07 PM 1/25/2014