Figure 1.--Here we see the refugees in Karamoja during 1980 created by the Ugandan Civil War. Karamoja is Uganda's Land of Warrior Nomad. It is an arid rehion in the northeast bordering on Knya. The French press caption read, "Drought and violence in Karamoja territory: Several tens of thousands of people are threatened with dieing of hunger in the next 3 months. For more than 2 years, drought has taken place in several East African countries. In Karamoja-northeastern region of Uganda-the situation is particularly catastrophic. All the calamites seem to have come to make this territory a vast cemetery. In addition to drought, the war prevented all agricultural activities (sowing). In 1979 at the fall of Idi Amin Dada, some of the Ex-Dictator's men fled to Sudan through Karamoja, pursued by Tanzanian soldiers. It is well known to what plunder and killings both have fallen. The successive governments of Llull and Binassa were too weak to intervene, considering the 400,000 Karamajongs as sub-humans, without political or economic interest. The humanitarian agencies (ICRC, UNHCR, FAO, UNDP, Oxfam, and World Food Program) agreed that in the next 3 months, i.e. before the first harvest, several tens of thousands of people to starve." The photograoh is indatd, but as taken in late-May or early-June 1980.

Uganda is located in the Great Rift Valley where ancient hominids have been found. The countries of the Rift thus have humanities longest known history. Most of it, however, is pre-history. Thus we have to anthropologists and archeologits for the early history of Uganda which litterally goes back millions of years. The earliest people popultion we have any infomation on is the Bantu peoples who were engaged in agriculture (about 1000 BC). Sub-Saharan Africa had no written language until contact with the Arabs and Europeans. Iron working technology has been noted (around 1000 AD). Important social and political developments began with the appearances of chiefdomnates or small kingdomses in the fertile south and west. This included the Ankole, Buganda, Bunyoro, Busoga, and Toro kingdoms (17th and 18th centuries). Trade links were formed with Arab Sudan. Slaves were the major commodity which dominated the regional economy at the time. The Uganda chieftanates formed alliances which shifted over time. Eventually the Buganda Kingdom allied to the powerful Shirazis of Zanzibar, became the dominant power in what is now Uganda. Bugada gave Uganda its name. Zanzibar was the center of the East African/Inian Ocean slave trade. Buganda was ruled by Kabaka (traditional kings). They wre not absolute leaders. There authority was limited by a council of nobles. Buganda devloped a standing army and an important agriculture base. As a result, when Britain began its campaign against the Indian Ocean slave trade, Buganda was had thus not devestated economically. Arabs traders dominated the area in the 19th century. The region was unknown to Europeans until the late-19th century when explorers arrived: John Speke (1862) and Heney Stanley (1875). Britain established a protectorate (1894) and later annexed adjacent territory. Uganda became independent with Sir Edward Mutessa II who was king of the Buganda Tribe (1962) Prime-minister Obote removed Mutessa and declared Uganda a "unitary" state (1966). Iddi Amin staged a military coup and waged a virtual reign of terror. This had adevestating impact on the Ugandan econonomy as did his expulsion of the country's South Asians. The country, especially the economy, has never fully recovered. Modern Uganda is engaged in a guerilla war with the nilhisic Lords Resistance Movement.

Pre-History

Uganda is located in the Great Rift Valley where ancient hominids have been found. The countries of the Rift thus have humanities longest known history. Most of it, however, is pre-history. Thus we have to anthropologists and archeologits for the early history of Uganda which litterally goes back millions of years.

The Bantu People (about 1,000 BC)

The earliest people popultion we have any infomation on is the Bantu peoples who were engaged in agriculture (about 1000 BC). Sub-Saharan Africa had no written language until contact with the Arabs and Europeans. Iron working technology has been noted (around 1000 AD).

Bantu Chieftomnates (17th-18th Centuries)

Important social and political developments began with the appearances of Bantu chieftomnates or small kingdomses in the fertile south and west. This included the Ankole, Buganda, Bunyoro, Busoga, and Toro kingdoms (17th and 18th centuries). Trade links were formed with Arab Sudan. Slaves were the major commodity which dominated the regional economy at the time. The Uganda chieftanates formed alliances which shifted over time.

Buganda Kingdom

Eventually the Buganda Kingdom allied to the powerful Shirazis of Zanzibar, became the dominant power in what is now Uganda. The Buganda did not dstroy all of the other chieftomnates , but did dominate much of the area of modern Ugnda. Bugada gave Uganda its name. Zanzibar was the center of the East African/Inian Ocean slave trade. Buganda was ruled by Kabaka (traditional kings). They wre not absolute leaders. There authority was limited by a council of nobles. Buganda devloped a standing army and an important agriculture base. As a result, when Britain began its campaign against the Indian Ocean slave trade, Buganda was had thus not devestated economically.

Arab Traders (8th-19th Centuries)

Arab traders from a very early point after the Islamic outburst from the Araabian Peninsula be gan to trade throughout the Indian Ocean, coming to dominate it. For much of this period, the Arab activity in East Africa was limited to setting up coastal trading posts. Only gradually did hy begin to move inland. Arabs traders dominated the area in the early- and mid-19th century. They playd a major role in the slave trade. Arab trading posts along the coast were insecue, subject to attacks. The Arab trading economy in East Africa was centered on Zanzibar. Zanzibar as an island provided a degree of security that coastal posts did not. Zanzibar was especially important in the slave trade.

Slave Trade

Uganda located deep in East Africa was not affected as severly by the slave trade as coastal areas of East Africa. As slavers began depopulating coastal areas, they had to move deepwe inland in search of healthy captives. The distance and terraine to an extent protected the people of what is now Uganda. Slavers found it difficult to drive captives across long distances over rough terrain to the coastal forts and ports like Zanzibar and Mombasa. The Kabaka of Buganda began bartering ivory and other valuables with Arab traders for guns and cloth. Eventually they began collaborating with Arab slave traders, essentially turning against their own people. We are not sure to what extent the Kabakas were pressured by well-armed Arab traders. We are sure their were enticements in valuable trade goods. This was a phenomenon occuring over and over again throughout Africa. An unknown number of Ugandan captives were sold in the slave trade. We know of no actual data. Egyptian slave traders from the Sudan operated as far south as Bunyoro (northern Uganda). Ismail Pasha, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt at the time, contracted with British explorer Samuel Baker to seize Bunyoro for Egypt. We notice one Ugandan source as accusing Baker as trying to more firmly establish the slave trade in this area. We are not entirely sure about Egyptians motives, but Baker was a dedicated abolitionist. nding the slave trade in Uganda was complicated by the continued commitment to the slavery trade among Muslim fundamentalists in the Sudan resulting in the Mhadist revolt. It was largely ended wih the British defeat of the Mhadist forces and protctorate in Uganda.

British Royal Navy Effort to End the Indian Ocean Slave Trade (19th century)

The Indian Ocean slave trade was as in the Atlantic, primarily ended by British diplomats and the Royal Navy. This was primarily the result of the British abolition movement which grew out of the Chriustian churches. Unlike Christianity there was no abolitionist movement which developed out of Islam in Arab or other Muslim countries. In fact, slavery continued in Muslim, mostly Arab contries, into the 20th century. From a very early point, the British realized that the key to ending the Indian Ocean slave trade was Zanzibar. Unlike the Atlantic slave trade which was conducted along the lengthy African coast, a very large part of the Indian Ocean slave trade was conducted through Zanzibar. This gave the British who could use the powerful Royal Navy a great advantage. Zanzibar becamne important because it was an island. Thus the Arabs could easily defend it. Trading outposts on the mainland were vulnerable to African attacks. While the island location was realatively safe from Africam attack, it was particularly vulnerable to the Royal Navy. Thus British diplomats were able to exert considerable influence in Zanzibar. The first diplomatic success was the Moresby Treaty (1822). From that first success, the British gradually pressed the Sultan of Zanzibar for more restrictions on the slave trade. Royal Navy patrols at sea also pressed the Sultan and slave traders. It was, however, not till the Scramble for Africa and the European colonization of Africa that the Indian Ocean slave trade was finally ended.

European Era (1862-1962)

The region was unknown to Europeans until relatively recently. Various Europeans entered East Africa for the first time (after the mid-19th century). The first were the explorers: John Speke (1862) and Heney Stanley (1875). English Protestant and French Catholic missionaries soon followed. Some came at the request of Kabaka Mutesa I. Baganda loyalties began to divide among ‘Franza’, ‘Inglesa’ and Arab Muslim parties. The British East Africa Company set up in Buganda with the Kabaka’s permission (1888). Britain established a protectorate (1894) and later annexed adjacent territory. Belgian, French, and German colonies were organized around Uganda. The Europeans largely ended the slave trade. To the north the Arab resistance to ending meant thst it coninued as a result of the Mhadi's rebellion in the Sudan (1881-94). Thev Britidh declared Buganda a Protectorate (1894). The British extended the Protectorate to Bunyoro, Ankole, and Toro, essentially creating Uganda's modern borders (1896). The British extended Buganda’s administrative system to these areas that had not been part of Buganda. A new crop was introduced for export (1904). It was at first cultivtred by native small holders. Administrative control passed to the British Colonial Office (1905). Uganda was, however, never fully colonised. Nas non-Africans were never allowed to acquire freeholds. The important Busoga Railway was completed (1913). This conected Uganda with the Kenya rail system and provided for the first time an efficent connection to internatiuonal markets through he port of Mombassa. The cotton industry was already well established and was Uganda's major export market. It suffered from both World War I (1914-18) and the Great Depression (1930s). Commercial production of coffee and sugar began (1920s). After World War II (1939-45), strong prices for coffee and cotton brought economic prosperity. Uganda was one of several European colobies that seem to gave bright prospects as independence neared.

Independence (1962- )

Steps oward local autonom began (1921). British auhorities established a legislative and an executive council. At first only a few Africans were included on council, but half the membership of the legislative council were Africans (1955). A party political system began to developg. The executive council evolved into a ministerial system. The first general election was held (1961). Benedicto Kiwanuka’s Democratic Party won. Uganda became internally self-governing with Kiwanuka as first Prime Minister. A second general election (April 1962) resulted in a victory for Milton Obote’s Uganda People’s Congress (UPC). Britain granted full independence (October 1962). Ughanda approved a democratic Constition and joind the Commonwealth. The Kabaka of Buganda, Sir Edward Mutesa (Kabaka Mutesa II), became the first (non-executive) President, essentially a constitutional monarch (1963). Prime-minister Obote abrogated the 1962 constitution and removed Mutessa (1966). He declared Uganda a 'unitary'" state (1967). The traditional kingdoms were abolished. Obote established himself as head of the executive as well as head of state. (The traditional kingdoms were later restored in 1993, and the 1995 constitution has a provision on traditional leaders.) Obote did not last long as president. Former Paratroop Seargeant Iddi Amin staged a military coup (1971). Obote's rule had become unpopular and Amin was at first popular. This did not last long. Amin proceeded to wage a reign of terror (1971). Amin's brutality and the collspse of any semblance of the rule of law had a devestating impact on the healthy Ugandan econonomy. Amin further damaged the economy by expelling South Asians and seizing their property (1972). The south Asians had played an important role in the commercial sector. Next he expropriated the property of the smaller Jewish community. And Amin began cooperating with Palistinian terrorits. This led to Israel's operation Entebbe (1976). Amin began terrorizing intellctuals. In Amin's mind intellectuals meant possession of books, eye glasses, and chess sets. Public order collapsed. Murder, destruction of property, looting, and rape became widespread. Amin declared himself President-for-life. Peole fled the country to refgugee camps set up in neighboring countries. Finally launched an invasion of Tanzania’s northern territories. Not encountering significant domestic opposition, Amin seems to have convincd himsel that he could forcibly act against other countries. The Tanzanian governmnt and press had been highly critical of Amin and his lawless regime, They saw the invasion as a declaration of war. The Tanzanian Army struck back and supported by the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) composed of Ugandan refugees drove the Ugandan Army out of the northern territories. And they continued to advance all the way to Kampala (April 1979). Amin fled the country and was taken in by Saudi Arabia, in part becuse oif his anti-Israeli stance. Professor Yusuf Lule, a former Commonwealth Assistant Secretary-General and Chairman of UNLF was set up as the priovisional President. He was replaced by Godfrey Binaisa. A Military Commission led by Paulo Muwanga organized elctions (1980). Commonwealth and others observed the election. The elections returned Dr. Obote’s UPC to power. The results, however, were disputed. Obote was unable to restore economic and political stability to the country devestated by Amin and war. TheThe new government became bogged down in a civil war. The National Resistance Army (NRA), led by Yoweri Museveni launched a protracted resistance effort, accusing the government of rigging the 1980 elections. National Resistance Army (NRA) was formed and began the Bush War agsinst Onote (1981). Obote was overthrown by his own Uganda National Liberation Army in a coup led by General Tito Lutwa Okello (July 1985). Okello became President. This did not placate the NRA and their allies still fighting in the bush. The NRA finally won the civil war (1986), but fighing coninued in the north. Museveni and the National Resistance Movement (NRM) took over a country whichb had suffered 1 million deaths, 2 million refugees, and more than 0.5 million seriously injured people. And Uganda was not a large country. In addition to the terrible bloodshed, the economy and physical infrastructure had been destroyed. The Ugandan economy and society in geneal has never fully recovred. Modern Uganda is engaged in a guerilla war with the nilhisic Lords Resistance Movement.

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