Figure 1.--. |
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European countries by the mid-19th century were demanding special rights in Morocco a country which do to its geographic situation was of considerable strategic impotyance. The industrial revolutuon transforming Europe did not touch Morroco. Here backward rulers and Islamic scholars played roles in maintaning Moricco as a virtually fedudal state. The industrial revolution radically transformed the balance of power between Morocco and the European powers. Spain was the first country to intervebe n Morocco. Spain intervened to enforce such demands and defeated Moroccan forces (1860). They were soon followed by the French. The Europeans by the 20th century had colonized virtually all of Africa and much of Asia. An indedpendent Morocco was an anomaly. One reason for this was that the European powers could not agree over who should take possession of Morocco. This was asituation that the Europeans moved to correct. With a weakened Sultan, the Europeans move to actually colonize Morocco. France established a protectorate along the lines of Tunisia (1912). The French rule in Morocco as in Algeria and Tunisia was maintained by the French Army, but there were substantial differences. A fiction of Moroccan ruke was mauntained with the Sultn. The Sultan had a degree of authority unlike any figure in either Algeria or Tunisia. It was the French-appointed resident general, howwever, who held the real authority in Morocco. The Sultan was forced to work through newly created ministeries staffed by French officials. The Spanish created a smaller protectorate in Morocco.
Morocco is often grouped with the four other Mediterranean North African Arab states. There are some factors making Morocco unique. Morocco had a thousand-year old recird of independence. Morocco was part of the Islamic Caliphate, but not a part of the Ottoman Empire. There was also a history of relations with Spain. This was most pronounced during the centuries of Islamic rule in Spain, but continued even after the Reconquista creating a unique relationship between the two countries. Geography also made Morocco different. It was the only North African country with an Atlantic coast. This affected the outlook of Moroccans. In addition the status of Tangiers as an internatijal cuty provided contacts with Europeans that other North African countries did not have. br>
Sultan Sidi Mohammad died (1790). Struggles for the sucession lead to civil war. Factions in both Fez and Marrakech struggle for control. After several years of disorder,sultan Moulay Slimane establishes his authority, including control of Fez and Marrakech. Sultan Moulay Slimane is able to control Morocco, but was not a modern ruler abd turned Morocco in on itself. He saw Europeans as a distruptive non-Islamic influence. He thus broke relations with European countries. Morocco at the time had been treated by the Europeans as an equal state actor. This put Morocco completely outside the world of European powers. As a result of the Sultan's actions, Morocco was completely cut off from the science and learning sweeping Europe. The Sultn even banned exports to Europe. This significantly weakened the Moroccan economy.
France after the Napoleonic War becam to construct a new empire. All that was left od the old empire were a few small islands, mostly located in the Caribbean. The first new acquisition was Algeria (1830s). Next was Tunisia which they ruled as a protectorate through the nominal authority of the Sultan. France moved to gain control of Morocco which because of the imperal desires of Gemany caused an international incident.
European countries by the mid-19th century were demanding special rights in Morocco a country which do to its geographic situation was of considerable strategic impotyance. The industrial revolutuon transforming Europe did not touch Morroco. Here backward rulers and Islamic scholars played roles in maintaning Moricco as a virtually fedudal state. The industrial revolution radically transformed the balance of power between Morocco and the European powers. Spain was the first country to intervebe n Morocco. Spain intervened to enforce such demands and defeated Moroccan forces (1860). Morocco had to transfer Sidi Ifni to Spain unfder the Treaty of Tetouan. More European demands followed. The European powers next demanded coincessions in Tangier. The Madrid Conference essentially turned Tangier into an international city administered by a European coinsortium. Both Spain and France had by this time interfered in Morocco to support various claims by its citizens. Sultan Moulay Hassan died (1894). His son Abdu l-Aziz was only 10 years old and unable to effectively execise his authority as sultan. European advisors became the major influences at court. Provincial rulers exerted their influence as the Sultan's influence becomes limited largely to the capital where foreign troops are garisoned.
The Europeans by the 20th century had colonized virtually all of Africa and much of Asia. An indedpendent Morocco was an anomaly. One reason for this was that the European powers coul not agree over who should take possession of Morocco. This was asituation that the Europeans moved to correct. With a weakened Sultan, the Europeans move to actually colonize Morocco. The major colonial powers (Britain, France, and Italy) settled on going colonial border disputes. As part of this arrangement, Morocco was recognized as following with the French zone of influence. The problem was that the German's with their increasibly powerful fleet were not included. This led to an international incident (1905). This was finally resolved by the Algeciras Conference (1906). Here German investments were guaranteed and the French and Soanish granted police power.
French troops occupied Oujda which was near the border with French controlled Algeria (1907).
Next French troops moved into Casablanca. Sultan Abdu l-Aziz was deposed by his brother Moulay Hafiz. He proves no more successful in opposing the French encroachments. Spain moved 90,000 troops into Melilla in northeastern Morocco (1909). The following year the French traped and detain Sultan Moulay Hafiz and force him to sign an agreements recognizing their control of Morocco. Problems continued with the Germans. The most serious occurance was the Agadir Incident. This was finally resolved when the Germans recognized a Fench protectorate in exchange for territoirial concessions in Africa (1911).
The French protectorate over Morocco was finalized with the Treary of Fez (1912). The Sultan coinferred on France the right to defend his country. The Sultan signed a similar treaty was signed with Spain which took possession of much of the northern coast as well as areas in the far south.
France established a protectorate along the lines of Tunisia (1912). The French rule in Morocco as in Algeria and Tunisia was maintained by the French Army, but there were substantial differences. A fiction of Moroccan ruke was mauntained with the Sultn. The Sultan had a degree of authority unlike any figure in either Algeria or Tunisia. It was the French-appointed resident general, howwever, who held the real authority in Morocco. The Sultan was forced to work through newly created ministeries staffed by French officials. The Moroccan government (makhzan) was largely a fiction. Muhammad al-Muqri was the grand vizier when the protectorate was created (1912). He still held that post when Morocco recovered its independence. He was byv that time over 100 years old. French authorities establisjed country districts administered by contrôleurs civils. There were a few exceptions. In some areas like Fès officers with the rank of general supervised the administration. The French conceded a degree of autonomy in the south. There French authorities granted a degree of autoinomy to several Amazigh chiefs (qa'ids). The most notable was Thami al-Glaoui. The system was very similar to that the French used in Tunisia. There were differences between the French administration in Morrocco than either Tunisia or Algeria. French rule was established much more recently in Morocco than in either of the other two dependencies. And just 2 years later World war I broke out. Large numbers of Moroccans were recruited for military service. After the War attitudes toward colonialism began to change in France. This combined with Morocco's history and other factors meant that French authority in Morocco was more tenuous than either Algeria and Tuniia.
The extreme north of Morocco, withabout 10 percent of the area, became a Spanish protectorate. This included both an Atlantic and Mediterranean coast as well as the desert province of Tarfaya in the southwest which bordered on the Spanish Sahara. It was from Spanish Morocco which had asubstantial Spanish Army garrison that Francisco Franco woukd launch the Spanish Civil War (1936).
Resistace to the Europeans, especially the Spanish, began in the Rif mountains. The rebellion was launched by Abdu l-Karim. It went on for 5 years until finally being put down by combined Spanis-French expedition totaling 360,000 troops.
France in the early 20th century expanded its position in Morocco. Morocco became a French protectorate under the terms of the Treaty of Fes (1912). Morocco was the scene of provicative incidents with Germany. Moroccan units fought for France in World war I. Oposition to French colonial rule increased during the inter-war era. After the War began, the fall of France shocked many nationalists (June 1940). The situation did not immetiately change because ynder the Franco-German Armistice the Vicht regime retained control of France's colonial dependencies. Moroccan authorities continued to cooperate with Vichy officials. The Allied Torch landings changed the situation radically as Morocco was rapidly occupied by American forces (November 1942). Morocco was used as a supply base for the Allied forces driving east toward Tunisia. The Allies held one of the most important conferences of the War at Casablanca (January 1943). Roosevelt, Churchill, and DeGualle attended, but Stalin declined. It was at Casablanca that the call for "unconditional surrender" was issued and the decession to launch an expanded strategic bombing campaign was made. President Roosevelt gave personal assurances to King Mohammed V, that the United states swould support independence. The French in Morocco rapidly went over to the Free French and Allied side. The Allies promised Morocco independence within 10 years if they cooperated with the Allies. France after the War, however, did not honor the pledge. Nationalist groups later based their campaign for independence on such Allied pronouncements as the Atlantic Charter. The Istiqlal (Independence) Party issued a manifesto demanding independemce (1944).
The French signed an armistice leaving souther France unoccupied and a capital at Vichy. French colonies were also unoccupied, including Morocco. The colonies, however, came under Vichy law. This included the new race laws which Vichy passed. Thus Jews came under the same percecutioin they suffered in France itself.
After Pear Harbor, Hitler declared war on America (December 1941). This was the only country for which Hitler bothered to issue a formal declaration of war. America and Britain launced the first Allied offensive of the war less than a year later. American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill decided that the Allies needed to open a Second Front to take pressure off the hard-pressed Red Army reeling under the German summer offensive driving toward Stalingrad and the oil-rich Caucauses (July 1942). Joseph Stalin demanded an invasion of Europe. Wisely Roosevelt and Churchill targetted French North Africa. American General George Marshall, in many ways the architect of the American victory, was opposed to Totch, considering it a diversion. Roosevelt insisted. While Montgomery's victory at El Alemain often receives more attentiin, it was the Torch landings that were the decisive action. The Amercan and British landings in North Africa sealed the fate of the Axis desert campaign. Even if Rommel had broken through to Suez, he would have been forced to turn west to deal with the Allied landings in French North Africa. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed Allied commander to oversee the Torch Landings. The Allies driving east from their Moroccan and Algerian beachheads linked up with the Brish advancing west (November 1942). Although Hitler rushed reinforcements to Tunisia, the end result was the first major defeat of a German Army by the Western Allies.
France's capitulation to the Germans had seriously undermined their creditability as a colonial force in Morocco which had always been based on the French Army. The nationalistic Istiqlal Party called for independence (1943).
France after the War tried to reimpose colonial rule. This proved difficult because France had been so totally defeated by the Germans. In addition there was groing denand for independence from Moroccans.
The French found Sultan Mohammed V increasingly difficult. On several occassions he refussed to cooperate with French authorities. The Sultan final;ly joined forces with the nationalisrs. The French responded by exiling the Sultan. The French attemoted to replace Mohammed with the Berber pasha of Marrakech, Thamil-Glaoui, the new sultan. Here Thamil-Glaoui was able to attract few followers. Disorder began to increase with a variety of attacks and outbreaks of violence. Finally the French allowed the Sultan to return (1955). This was essentialy admitting defeat. This did not end the unrest as increasingly Moroccans saw that independence was within their grasp.
France at the time was involved in a full scale civil war in Algeria. This was an actual colony much more impoetant to the French than Morocco. Large number of French colonisyts had settled in Algeria.
France decided to grant full independence to Moricco so that it could focus on the civil war in Algeria. Sultan Muhammad V took over a country that had united against French conntrol. The country had benefitted economically from five decades of French cintrol which brought infrastructire (ports, irrigation, roads and railroads). There were, however, aide range of conflicts between religious and political groups in Morocco. The country also began to press Spain for the return of both Spanish Mprocco and the Spanish Sahara. >
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