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Once in control of North Viet Nam after the war with the French, the Vietnamese Communists began their effort to seize control of South Viet Nam. Laos' future was determined in large measure by this much larger struggle--the Vietnamn War. A 14-nation conference was convened in Geneva to end the Laotian Civil War. The outcome was an agreement to create a neutral Laos under a unified government (1962). A provisional coalition government with representatives of all the different factions was set up with Prince Souvanna Phouma as premier. The attempt to unify the three separate military units failed. The Pathet Lao began attacking the neutralist forces. Open warfare brokeout (1963). Only the North Vietnamese were willing to commit combat troops to Laos. Strengthen by Norrth Vietnamese troops and supplies, the Pathet Lao was able to gain control over much of northern an eastern Laos. This was important because it gave the North Vietnamese access to unimpeded supply routes to support Viet Cong operatiojs in South Vietnam. Military leaders disturbed with the Pathet Lao and Vietnamese incursions staged a coup (1964). They attempted to force Souvanna Phouma to resign. The United States and the Soviet Union refused to recognize the coup leaders. Souvanna Phouma thus retained the premioership, but with a right-wing neutralist government. It is at this time that President Johnson decided tgo intervene heavily with combat units to support South Vietnam. He also ordered the bombing of North Vietnam, primarily to limit supplies reaching the Viet Cong in the south (1965). The CIA conducted a largely secret para-military operation in Laos resisting Communist control of the country. The operation was largely successful until the American withdrawl from Vietnam. [Helms] Walter Rostow who suceeded Bundy as National security Adviser insited that the United States could have ended the War quickly if it had moved into Laos to cut the supplies flowing south over the Ho Chi Min Trail. [Appy] As a result, Pathet Lao guerrilla activity decreased. The American bombing also targeted the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This was the North Vietnamese supply route in eastern Laos just west of border of North and South Vietnam. The bombing at first targeted eastern Laos, but not the extendion on into Cambodia. Communist pressure increased during 1969 when the Viet Cong launched the Tet Offendive. Pathet Lao forces launched several major offensives against South Viet Nam (early 1970). South Vietnam responded with incursions into Laos to cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail (early 1971). The North Vietnamese fell back to safer areas deeper into Laos making the country another battleground of the Vietnam War. The United States targeted the Vietnamese with air raids deeper into Laos. The United states entered the war in Lsos in several ways. First the United States provided military and economic aid to the Laotian government. Secpnd, it armed the Hmong tribes who were strongly opposed to the North Vietnamese. The Hmong also fought in South Vietnam. Third, the United States also financed Thai mercenary troops. Their numbers reached 21,000 men (1972). The Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnamese supplies and combat troops, achieved major victories and exerted control over more than two thirds of Laotian territory, but only about a third of the country's population. Heavy fighting fighting occurred for several years. A cease-fire was finally negotiated (February 1973). An agreement between the Government and the Pathet Lao was concluded (September 1973). This was the same time the Paris Peace accords ending the Viet Nam War were and enablong the withdraw of American combat firces were approved. The agreement involved the formation of a coalition government under Souvanna Phouma (April 1974). The agreement orivided for the stationing of an equal number of government and Pathet Lao troops in both capitals. Another provision was the withdrawal of all foreign troops and advisers.
The Kingdom of Laos became a theatr in the wider Vietnamese War. The Franco–Lao Treaty of Amity and Association (1953) transferred remaining French authority Royal Lao Government (except military affairs). Laos became an independent member of the French Union. The Kingdom did not include representatives from the Lao Issara anti-colonial armed nationalist movement. The history of the Kingdom became the evolving tension between the neutralists under Prince Souvanna Phouma, the right wing under Prince Boun Oum of Champassak, and the left-wing Lao Patriotic Front under Prince Souphanouvong and half-Vietnamese future Prime Minister Kaysone Phomvihane. Attempts were made to establish a coalition governments. A "tri-coalition" government was finally established in Vientiane.
Once in control of North Viet Nam after the war with the French, the Vietnamese Communists began their effort to seize control of South Viet Nam (1954). Laos' future was determined in large measure by this much larger struggle--the Vietnamn War. The North Vietnamese invaded Laos (1958–59) to establish create the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
The Laotian Civil War essentially began with the defeat of the French by the Viet Minh (1953).
Free elections were held (1955). The first coalition government, led by Prince Souvanna Phouma, was formed (1957), but soon collapsed (1958). Captain Kong Le staged a coup when the cabinet was away at the royal capital of Luang Prabang (1960). He demanded reformation of a neutralist government. The resulting second coalition government, once again was led by Souvanna Phouma, was no more successful in holding power than during the first coaltion. Rightist forces under General Phoumi Nosavan drove out the neutralist government from power within a few months. This prompted a North Vietnamese invasion (1958-59). The Pathet Lao included many North Vietnamese of Lao ancestry. They were the strongest militry force given North Vietnamese support. As the French ended their training mission, the United States expanded their training mission. Sixteen H-34 helicopters were transferred from the U.S. Marine Corps to the CIA Air America. Maintenance facilities were established at Udorn in northern Thailand, some 85 km south of Vientiane. The Pathey Lao
On 9 March, the communists captured the only road junction between Luang Prabang and Vientiane March 9, 1961. RLA troops ordered to counterattack and retake the junction, abandoned theie weapons and ran away. American Special Forces Team Moon was assigned as advisers to the RLA unit. [Castle, pp. 29-31.]
Team Moon was overrun (April 22). The American reaction was to arm the Hill Tribes. Paramilitary trainers trained guerrilla units. Supply was accomplished through airdrops. Specialized short takeoff and landing aircraft used makeshift dirt airstrips. Meanwhile other paramilitary trainers attmoyed to mold the Royalist regulars into a serious fighting force. Fighter-bombers provided close air support.
The Royal Laotian Government (RLG) attempted to gain control over the provincial capital of Nam Tha, which was on the northwestern border, along the border of China (December 1961). RLA Groupement Mobiles (GMs) 11 and 18 were stationed there, and soon came under pressure from the Pathet Lao. [Conboy, p. 13.] The RLA hold on Nam Tha waseakening. They were reinforced by the paratroopers of GM 15 hiving the defenders a force that should have held. American Special Forces advisors were positioned with them. The Pathet Lao were not strong enoufg to take Nam Tha. The PAVN, however was. An assault broke the RLA forces (May 1962). The RLA fled southward across northwestern Laos into Thailand, more than a hundred miles.
A 14-nation conference was convened in Geneva to end the Laotian Civil War. The outcome was an agreement to create a neutral Laos under a unified government (1962). The North Vietnames agreeed to Laotian independence, but ignored their commitment and increased their military prsence in Laos. They continued military efforts to conquer the South. This North Vietnamese military presence in Laos drew the country into the expanding Second Indochina War (1954-1975).
The unfolding disaster in Laos prompted the United States and other Western governments pressured the RLG into a coalition Provisional Government with the Pathet Lao and Kong Le's Forces Armee Neutrale.
A provisional coalition government with representatives of all the different Laotian factions was set up with Prince Souvanna Phouma as premier. This was an attempt to meet the new 1962 Geneva Agreements on Laos. It triggered the Treaty requirement that foreign military technicians be withdrawn from Laos by October 1962. The United States disbanded its Military Assistance Advisory Group and withdrew its military mission. The Vietnamese communists did not in violation of the Treaty obligations. They repatriated only a token 40 technicians for propaganda, but almost all of the 2,000 North Vietnamese remained. [Conboy, pp. 13-15.] The Americans moved companies of hill tribes irregulars Hua Hin in Thailand for training. [Conboy, p. 17.]
The attempt to unify the three separate military units predictably failed. The neutralist group was not a cohsive force. They were divided between right-leaning neutralists (headed by Kong Le) and left-leaning neutralists (headed by Quinim Polsena and Colonel Deuane Sunnalath). Kong Le's second in command, Colonel Ketsana, was assassinated (February 12). Shortly afterwards Quinim Polsena and his deputy were also assassinated. The neutralist camp began to split with some joining the Pathēt Lao. The Pathet Lao with North Vietnamese support began attacked the neutralist forces (mid-1963). Open warfare between the Pathet Lao and government troops soon resumed. Vang Pao gathered three SGU battalions into Groupement Mobile 21 and spearheaded a drive into Sam Neua held by the Pathet Lao. His offensive was resupplied by CIA (Air America and Bird and Sons) air drops. The United States responding to North Vietnamese violations of the Treaty, re-established a Military Assistance Advisory Group to support those resisting the Pathet Lao. The Requirements Office of the U.S. Embassy in Vientiane was manned by civilians and monitored the need for U.S. military aid to Laos. The United States provided
the Royal Laotian Air Force its first four T-28 Trojans that had been adapted for counter-insurgency operations (August 1963). The irregular mountain tribe companies trained in thailand were formed into a battalion--SGU 1. These irregular forces operated throughout the country. A primary target was the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Vang Pao was promoted to Brigadier General by King Sisavong (December 1963). The Pathet Lao and North Vietnmese resonse was genocide. The killed an estimated 18-20,000 Hmong tribesmen. [Harffs and Gurr, p. 359.] It was a one-sided conflict. Only the North Vietnamese were willing to commit combat troops to Laos. Strengthen by North Vietnamese troops and supplies, the Pathet Lao was able to gain control over much of northern an eastern Laos. This was important because it gave the North Vietnamese access to unimpeded supply routes to support Viet Cong operations in South Vietnam.
The North Vietnamese by 1964 had enlarged what had been footpaths on the Ho Chi Minh Ttrail into improved truck roads. Smaller paths were developed for bicycles and walking. The Laotians had no say in this. The North Vietnames Army was far beyond any Laotian military force. The North Vietnamese by invading eastern Laos had converted the country into the major artery for to infiltrate South Vietnam and support the insurgency against the South Vietnamese Government. Pathet Lao and more importantly troops drove Laotian forces from the Plain of Jars in east-central Laos (Spring 194). The Plain of Jars was located in Xieng Khouang province and had become an important part of the Trail leading to the Laotian southern panhandle connecting North to South Vietnam. Partly as a result, two coups occurred against the Royal Lao Government. The policemen of the Directorate of National Coordination in Vientiane staged the first coup (April 18, 1964). It suceeded, but was overturned (April 23). Neutralist Prime Minister Souvanna Phouma managed to form fragile coalition with the Pathet Lao communists. Military leaders disturbed with the Pathet Lao and Vietnamese incursions attempted to force Souvanna Phouma to resign. Defense Minister Phoumi Nosavan attempted to take over Vientiane with a training battalion (August 4). This attempt was defeated by the local Royal Lao Army troops in Vientiane. The police this time sat out the conflict. The Pathet Lao knowing they were backed by the North Vietnamese repudiated the coalition and repudiated Souvanna Phouma. He was thus forced to cooperate with the rightist Royalist politicians and military officers. The United States and the Soviet Union refused to recognize the coup leaders. Souvanna Phouma retained the premioership, but with a right-wing neutralist government. None of these actions in Vientiane affected the North Vietnamese use of the Ho Chi Minh Trail and funelling troops and supplies into South Vietnam. As a result
the U.S. Air Force began flying reconnaissance missions over the Laotian panhandle to obtain target information on men and material being moved into South Vietnam over the Ho Chi Minh Trail (May 1964). President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered a F-100 strike against the North Vietnamse retaliation for the shooting down of another U.S. aircraft (June 9). THe United States commenced the bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail in eastern Laos and the panhandle. The Plain of Jars bpmbing was significantly expanded-- Operation Barrel Roll (by December 1964). The U.S. ambassador to Laos, Leonard Unger, approved all targets before they were bombed.
It is at this time that President Johnson decided to intervene heavily with combat units to support South Vietnam. He also ordered the bombing of North Vietnam, primarily to limit supplies reaching the Viet Cong in the south (1965). The CIA conducted a largely secret para-military operation in Laos resisting Communist control of the country. The operation was largely successful until the American withdrawl from Vietnam. [Helms] Walter Rostow who suceeded Bundy as National security Adviser insited that the United States could have ended the War quickly if it had moved into Laos to cut the supplies flowing south over the Ho Chi Min Trail. [Appy] As a result, Pathet Lao guerrilla activity decreased. The American bombing also targeted the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This was the North Vietnamese supply route in eastern Laos just west of border of North and South Vietnam. The bombing at first targeted eastern Laos, but not the extendion on into Cambodia. For nearly a decade, eastern Laos was subjected to some of the heaviest bombing in the history of warfare. The target was the Ho Chi Minh Trail that passed through Laos and brought arms and supplies to the Viet Cong in South Vietnam.
The North Vietnamese also supported the Pathet Lao and repeatedly invaded Laos to back them. The government and army of Laos were backed by the United States during th Vietnam War. he United States trained both regular Royal Lao forces and irregular forces among whom many were the Hmong and other ethnic minorities wjo opposed the North Vietnamese. .
Communist pressure increased during 1969 when the Viet Cong launched the Tet Offendive. Senator John Cooper (Republican from Kentucky) worked to prevent American con\mbat troops fighting in Laos. Finall after several failed attempts, the Senatev passed a measure limiting U.S. activities in Laos and Thailand. The bill authorizing $23.2 Billion for the Vietnam War included a provision prohibiting the introduction of U.S. combat troops into Laos and Thailand (December 18, 1969).
Pathet Lao forces launched several major offensives against South Viet Nam (early 1970). News of expanding U.S. involvement in Laos and Cambodia was made public when 1969 Senate transcripts were released (March-April 1970). Senators McGovern, Hughes, Cranston, Goodell, and Hatfield explained plans to introduce an "end the war" amendment which would cut funds for military operations in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia (May 2, 1970). The North Vietnamese fell back to safer areas deeper into Laos making the country another battleground of the Vietnam War. One of the most important battles of the Vietnam War was fought in Laos. More than 20 North Vietnamese battalions assaulted positions held by some 10,000 Lao, Thai, and Hmong defenders. The action was not well reported in the press at the time. This was in essence a battle over the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The first battle for Skyline Ridge began over the Long Tieng base (March 20, 1970). Long Tieng was an important Laotian military base located in Xiangkhouang Province. It was a town and airbase through which the Central Intelligence Agency could supply the Laotian Army and disrupt the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The CIA referred to it as Lima Site 98 (LS 98) and Lima Site 20A (LS 20A). The North Vietnamese took the higher ground and fired down on Long Tieng. Reinforcements arrived to hold the position and the North Vietnamese retreated (March 26). [Leary] South Vietnam responded with incursions into Laos to cut the Ho Chi Minh Trail (early 1971).
The United States targeted the North Vietnamese with air raids deeper into Laos. The United States entered the war in Laos in several ways. First the United States provided military and economic aid to the Laotian government. Second, it armed the Hmong tribes who were strongly opposed to the North Vietnamese. The Hmong also fought in South Vietnam. Third, the United States also financed Thai mercenary troops. Their numbers reached 21,000 men (1972).
The Pathet Lao, supported by North Vietnamese supplies and combat troops, achieved major victories and exerted control over more than two thirds of Laotian territory, but only about a third of the country's population. Heavy fighting fighting occurred for several years. A cease-fire was finally negotiated (February 1973).
Due to continued bombing of Laos and Cambodia, The U.S. House of Representatives voted (219-188) for the first time to cut-off Indochina funds (May 10). The U.S. Senate followed up the House action by prohibiting the use of any funds appropriated by Congress to be used for combat activities in Laos or Cambodia (May 31).
An agreement between the Government and the Pathet Lao was concluded (September 1973). This was the same time the Paris Peace accords ending the Viet Nam War were enabling the withdraw of American combat forces were approved. The agreement involved the formation of a coalition government under Souvanna Phouma (April 1974). The agreement provided for the stationing of an equal number of government and Pathet Lao troops in both capitals. Another provision was the withdrawal of all foreign troops and advisers.
The North Vietnamese did not abide by their commitments and never withdrew from Laos. The Pathet Lao was essentially a proxy army for the North Vietnamese interests. When South Vietnam fell to North Vietnmse forces (April 1975), the Pathet Lao supported by the North Vietnamese seized control with little resistance. This effectively ended the Laotian Civil War. The King was forced to abdicate (December 2, 1975). The Lao People's Democratic Republic was established. Some 0.3 million Laotians out of a total population of 3.0 million left Laos to escape Communist control by crossing the Mekong River border into Thailand following the end of the civil war. [Courtois, p. 575.]
Appy, Christian G. Patriots: The Vietnam War Remembered from All Sides (Viking), 574p.
Castle, Timothy. At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975 (Columbia University Press: 1993).
Conboy, Kenneth J. War in Laos, 1954–1975 (Squadron/Signal Publications: 1994).
Courtois, Stephane, et al. The Black Book of Communism (Harvard University Press: 1997).
Harff, Barbara and Gurr and Ted Robert, "Toward an empirical eheory of genocides and politicides", International Studies Quarterly Vol. 32 (1988), p. 359.
Helms, Richard with William Hood. A Look over my Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency (Random House, 2003), 478p.
Leary, William M. "The CIA and the 'Secret War' in Laos: The Battle for Skyline Ridge, 1971-1972, The Journal of Military History Society for Military History (1995).
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