Figure 1.--.

Canada was settled by a diverse group of Native Americans, some adapting to extrodinarily difficult climatic conditions. The country was colonized by the French as New France and to a lesser extent around Hudson Bay the English. The French sent the first large group of settlers (17th century). The French lost Canada, however, during the French and Indian Wars and in the peace neogitiations were more concerned with Caribbean sugar islands (1760s). The Canadians including the still strongly French populatin stayed loyal to Britain during the American Revolution (1770s). American and Canada share a great deal in common, including both geography and the tradition of English law and democracy. The connection is so strong that in many instances the two countries shared many historical experiences. The countries differed, however, as to their path toward independence. America broke with Britain in the Revolutionary War (1775-83), although it should be recognized that war was not entirely America's choice. Britain Royal Government resisted peaceful, constitutionzl change that could have prevented war. Canadians chose a gradual constitutional change, although often not recognized is the decree to which the Revolutionary War changed British attitudes toward its colonies, making gradual approaches possible. The status of Canada was a question in the War of 1812 between America and Britain. That was the last time invading armies crossed the border. The American-Canadian border developed into the longest de-militarized border in the world. The British administered Canada as a group of separate colonies. The separate colonies were federated and achieved dominin status (19th century). British Candians gradually dominated the colony and the French became second-class citzens even in Quebec. Britain, Canada, and America played a major role in resisting the totalitarian challenge of the 20th century. First they resisted the military expansion of authoritative Willimite Germany, then the effort of NAZI Germany to virtually destroy the Western heritage, and finally the totalitarian threat of the Soviet Union. Canada played an important role in both World Wars, loyally supporting Britain. After Dunkirk the First Canadian Division was the only fully equipped division prepared to resist a NAZI invasion. The Canadians played a major role in the Battle of the Atlantic gauarding convoy. The Canadian Army played an important role in the liberation of France. Despite Canada's role in liberating France, French Canadians were not enthusistic about the war effort. Canada was a staunch ally in the Cold War. Canada in the post-War era has addressed the grevinces of the French minority. It is today a respected independent bilingual, multicultural federation.

Native Americans

Canada was settled by a diverse group of Native Americans, some adapting to extrodinarily difficult climatic conditions.

European Discovery and Exploration

The first Europeans to find Canada is a subject of historical controversy. Some archeologists have noted similarities between Native American clovis point arrowheads and spears and those of early medeival Europeans. There is more definitive information about Norse seafarers (the Vikings) discovering North America. Norse seamen sailing from Iceland to Greenland appear to hve been blown far to the west and reported sighted land--presumably Labrador (985 AD). The best known Viking seafarer was Leif Ericson. He is believed to be the first European to land in North America (about 1000 AD). This began the first of many Norse voyages to the northeastern coast of North America. The Vikings established a colony--Vinland. Its location was debzted for many years, but has been sited at the northernmost tip of Newfoundland. The colony did not survive and was proably abandoned even before the Viking colony on Greenland (14th and 15th centuries). The Norse were a pre-literate people, more inclined to raid the settle lands of Western Europe than exchange scholorly notes on navigation. Rumors from the Norse sagas may have reached Western navigators, but not definitive accounts of these explortions. Nor did any maps if they were made survive. As a result, Canada had to be rediscoverd by other Europeans. It was more norther Ruropeans that focused on what is now Canada, including the Dutch, French, and English, although as with the Spanish, Italian navigators were again involved. King Henry VII sponsored the first English voyage of discovery. After news spread of Columbus' discoveries (1492), King Henry contracted an Italian navigtor, John Cabot, to find a new trade route to Asia for England. Cabot sailed west from Bristol, England (1497). Cabot did not find a new trade route. but encoutered the eastern coast of Canada. Cabot like Columbus, at first thought he had encontred Asia. Cabot in a second voyage chartered the coast from abot Baffin Bay as far south as Maryland. King Henry laud claim to North America as it slowly became clear to Europeans that the early explorers had discovered a new continent rather than Asia. The first economic exploitation of North America came from a diverse group of European fishermen who began to hrvest the rich cod grounds on the Grand Banks. Some of the fishermen mde lndfall and encoubtered Native Americans. This was the first trading with the North Americans. The Europeans found they could obtain valuable furs for inexpesive trinkets. The Europeans were disappointed because what they found in North America seemed paultry in compsrison to the vast quantities of gold and silver that the Spanish Conquistadores found to the south. The Europeans, however, gradually decided to persevere in the north. King Francis I of France sponsored another Italian navigator, the Florentine Giovanni da Verrazano, to conduct Frnce's first voyage of discovery. Verrazano sailed along the coast from North Carolina to Newfoundland (1524). This was the initial basis for France's claims. The fact that it overlapped with Cabot's earlier voyage was the initial step in the developing struugle between Englnd and France to control North America. King Francis dispatched Jacques Cartier on another voyage (1534). Cartier did not explore new lands, but subitted a much more detailed report and focused on what was to prove the mouth of the St. Larence River. The first European penetration of the interior began through the St. Lawrence River was begun by Cartier the following year (1535). The attraction was finding a possible passage to Asia, more than a desire to move inland. Carttier's fleet of three small vessels reached the Indian village of Stadacona, (close to modern Quebec City). He continued further upstream and 150 west encountered the Indian village Hochelaga (modern Montreal). This was as far up the St. Lawrence he could sail his vessels. He named the high ground beyound the village Mont Real. Here they wintered. Many perished in the cold before the survivors returned to France in the Spring.

French Canada

The country was colonized by the French as New France and to a lesser extent around Hudson Bay the English. The French sent the first large group of settlers (17th century).

French-British Rivalry

The British and French claims to North America overlapped. They also persued very different colonial policies. The English planted largely agricultural settlments based on family settlement along a narrow coastal strip. The colonies were quite diverse, including religious disenters. They set up colonial legislatures and during the English Civil war essentially goverened themselves. New France from the beginning was strictly Catholic and goverened directly from Paris. The French moved into the interior, but with small numbers of mostly men seeking furs. La Salle explored the length of the Mississippi to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico (1682). This gave France a claim to a vast area of North America, but made no real effort to settle it. And few Frenchmen were motivated to settle the wilderness. At the same time, the much larger English population was huddled east of the Appalachians. It was thus only a matter of time before the two Empires came into conflict. And this conflict would come in the Ohio Valley. Furs attracted both the English and French. French control of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes gave them access to a vast wealth of furs. Henry Hidson had layed claim to Hudson Bay in the far north. He had been looking fir the Northwest Passage. The British founded the Hudson Bay Colony (1670). The French challenged the British claim and in a series of expeditions almost drove the English out. . France and England fought Queen Anne's War (1702). This merged into a major European War--the War of the Spanish Secession (1701-14). The English captured Port Royal (1710). Relatively minor provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht ending the War involved North America (1713). France regonized English control of the Hudson Bay Territory, Newfoundland, and Acadia. France retained Cape Breton Island as well as the interior of North American. The French to secure what was left of New France began building a powerful fortress at Louisbourg on Cape Breton. The French at the time were the most skilled military engineers in Europe. Louisbourg was a major military based and positioned to guard the entrance to the St. Lawrence River--the gateway to New France. Louisbourg became the most powerful fortress in North America. Louisbourg was not only a defensive instalation, but became a sanctuary for French privateeers preying on shipping from the English colonies in New England. Sir William Pepperell led a force of New Englanders organized a force of 90 vessels and 4,000 men to attack Louisbourg (1745). After a 3-month seige, the French garison surrendered. France and Britain fought a relatively small war, King George's War. It was ended by the Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle (1748). Louisbourg was returned to the French. The British decided to build its own Atlantic bastion. Britain dispatched a fleet and 2,500 new settlers to constructv a city and fortress at Halifax on Nova Scotia (1749).

French and Indian War (1754-63)

What might be considered the first world war, the Seven Years War (1756-63), began in North America. The first engagement was fought by of all people George Washington. The North American phase of the War was the French and Indian War (1754-63). A Virginia militia unit commanded by Washington ventured into disputed territory in te Ohio Valley. The French and India War can be seen as part of the Seven Years War, but they are major differences. The Seven Years War was essentially a combined European War to limit the aggressions of Prussia's Frederick the Great. The French and Indian War was a war over colonial control of North America. They are related in that France was deeply involved in both wars and they occurred at roughly the same time. the French and India War was fought by Britain and its North American colonies against France and its Indian (Algonquian) allies. France's North American colonies had evolved differently than the British colonies. The more limited French emmigration and differing attitudes toward Native Americans enduced the Algonquians to fight on their side against the British. The French lost Canada, however, during the French and Indian Wars and in the peace neogitiations were more concerned with Caribbean sugar islands (1760s).

Early British Colonial Rule

The British defeated the French Army, but they had an enormous problem on their hands. French Canada was an enormous territory. And it was very lighly populated. There were about 60,000 French-speaking Europeans and a much larger Native Americn population. The loyalty of Britain's new French subjects was critical to governing the new territory. And a major test came with a Native American uprising (1763). Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, organized a major uprising. He had sided with the French and did not want tobow to English rule. The Ottawa attacked and reduced the British Great Lakes forts, massacring any survivors. Fort Detroit held out as the only British fort west of Lake Erie. It managed to hold out until fresh troops were moved west and the Indian uprising finally defeated. The Crown appointed a royal governor and council to govern Canada. Parliament eventually passed a permanent system to govern Canada--the Quebec Act (1774). It was a generous effort to incorporate French Canadians into the British Empire. It was also the first step in the constitutional history of modern Canada. The boundaries of Quebec were extended south as far as the Ohio River valley. (This was an area claimed by the American colonies and thus a factor in the unfolding Revolutionary War.) The British also recognized the Roman Catholic church and its right to collect tithes. (This was at a time that the Roman Catholic Church in Britain itself was still restricted.) The British also recognized French civil law to govern the civil relations French Canadians with each other. British criminal law was imposed in matters having to do with public order. The generosity of the Quebec Act suceeded in wining the loyaly of French Canadians. French Canada had been ruled by royal decree and, unlike the English colonies to the south, there was no colonial legislture. The British who were having difficulties at the time with the American colonial legislatures did not create any elected assembly in Canada.

American Revolution (1775-83)

The loyalty of French Canadians after the Quebec Act (1774) was soon tested. The increasingly instrasigent American colonies challenged British rule. Fighting broke out around Boton (1775). The Continental Congress finally declared independence (1776). Most Americans assumed that Canada would join the rebellion. The American colonists sent to armies north to defeat the relatively small British force in Canada and liberate the province. Richard Montgomery, took Montreal, in a surprise attack and almost captured Sir Guy Carleton, the British governor. The second American Army led by Benedict Arnold attacked Quebed. Carleton had aleted the garrison which held out. Arnold layed siege to the fortress and was joined by Montgomery. Arnold's campaign is a milestone of human endurance and military bravery. It is an example of how martial bravery and cuvic virtue are not synonamous. The fight for Quebec took place during the Canadian winter. Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. With the advent od Spring, the Americans reytrated south. It was the only campaign of the Revolutuinary War waged in Canada. The British used Canada, however, as ataging area for Burgoune's campign (1778). The Canadians including the still strongly French populatin stayed loyal to Britain during the American Revolution (1770s). American and Canada share a great deal in common, including both geography and the tradition of English law and democracy. The connection is so strong that in many instances the two countries shared many historical experiences. The countries differed, however, as to their path toward independence. America broke with Britain in the Revolutionary War (1775-83), although it should be recognized that war was not entirely America's choice. Britain Royal Government resisted peaceful, constitutionzl change that coild have prevented war. Canadians chose a gradual constitutional change, although often not recognized is the decree to which the Revolutionary War changed British attitudes toward its colonies, making gradual approaches possible.

War of 1812 (1812-15)

The status of Canada was a question in the War of 1812 between America and Britain. Again Ameruican armies invaded Canada and British armies invaded America from Canada. The War Hawks in Congress were still convincedcthst the Canadians were anxious to join America. The Canadians, however, were even less inclined than during the Revolutionary War. The American invasion failed (1812-13). So did the British invasion. Again the Royal Navy could not support the British Army. Epic naval struggles occurred on Lake Erie and Lake Champaign. Unlike General Burgoyne, the British did not plunge into backwoods America in force. This was the last American attempt to seize Canada, but serious boundary issues remained.

Border Issues

The War of 1812 was the last time invading armies crossed the border. The American-Canadian border developed into the longest de-militarized border in the world.

Federation

The British administered Canada as a group of separate colonies. The separate colonies were federated and achieved dominin status (19th century). British Candians gradually dominated the colony and the French became second-class citzens even in Quebec.

World War I (1914-18)

Britain, Canada, and America played a major role in resisting the totalitarian challenge of the 20th century. First they resisted the military expansion of authoritative Willimite Germany. Canada like America had no treaties with European countries. Canada was, however, not an independent country. Thus Britain’s declaration of war on Germany meant that Canada was also at war. Germany's plan was a quick victory against France following the Schliffen Plan (August 1914). France's victory at the Marne meant that there would be no quick German victory. This gave the Allies time to marshal their resources and for Britain this included the resources of the Dominions. The Canadian Army was deployed with the British n the Western Front. Most Canadins were volunteers. Military conceription became a major political issue in France. French Canadians in prticular were opposed to it, even though the primry purpse was to prevent the German conquest of France..

World War II (1939-45)

Next the Canadians with Britain and America resisted the effort of NAZI Germany to virtually destroy the Wesrern heritage. Canada played an important role in both World Wars, loyally supporting Britain. After Dunkirk the First Canadian Division was the only fully equipped division prepared to resist a NAZI invasion. The Canadians played a major role in the Battle of the Atlantic gauarding convoy. The Royal Canadian Navy almost did not exist before the War and was rapidly expanded to a major naval force. The Canadians also hosted a major effort to train the air crews for the Strategic Bombing Campaign. Canadian industrial and agricultural production and raw materials were important to the British war effort. Some British children were sent to Canada for saftey early in the War, but this was discontinued when children were lost to U-boat attacks and the threat of NAZI invasion receeded. Canadian units were badly mauled at the poorly conceived Dieppe landings (August 1942). The Canadian Army, however, played an important role in the liberation of France. The Canadians landed at Juno Beach. Despite Canada's role in liberating France, French Canadians again were not enthusistic about the war effort and conscription became a major political issue which impeded the Canadian war effort. The Canadians were part of Montgomery's First Army which after France liberated the Low Countries (Belgium and the Netherlands) and the final push into NAZI Germany.

Cold War (1945-89)

Finally the Canadians joined in the Western veffort to resist the totalitarian threat of the Soviet Union. Canada was a staunch ally in the Cold War.

Constitutional Questions

Canada in the post-War era has addressed the grevinces of the French minority. It is today a respected independent bilingual, multicultural federation.

Created: 5:30 PM 12/27/2007
Last updated: 5:30 PM 12/27/2007