Figure 1.--This photograph from the Weimar Republic was taken in Berlin. It is undated, but we would guess was taken in the late 1920s. We wonder if the boy might have been the police offier's son. The different German states in the Weimar Republic still had considerable power. The states, for example, still had separate police forces. |
The Weimar Reoublic is a fascinatinh period in German history. It is a democratic interlude betweem the authoritarian Imperial regime and the totalitarian NAZI Third Reich. There were democratic elections and a parliament (the Reichtag) relatively free press in Imperial Germany, although real power lay with the kaiser and his chancellor. Even so, Germany did have some democratic institutions to build upon. Yet we know that democratic institutions failed in Germany. The history of the period is thus very instrucrive to our modern times. The Weimar Republic was a rivch period of culural flowering. It was also an era in which democracy failed and the NAZIs rose.
The Weimar Republic was born out of World War I, up to that time, the most destructive war in world history. Millions had died and the German economy was crippled by the allied blockade. Germany hoped to bring the War to a successful conclusion in 1918. After forcing Rusdia out of the war, German military forces were moved west. The Germans also resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, bring America into the War (1917). Thus when the Germann offensive struck, a American Ecpeditionary Force (AEF) was in France to bolster the Allied lines. When the German offensive failed, the Allies began the final offensive of the war, bolstered by British tanks and the AEF. The German Western Front began to crack under Allied offensives.
Allied offensives on the Western Front cracked the German front forcing them back toward Germany. The German Navy mutined. Riots broke out in Germany
cities. The General staff informed the Kaiser that they could no longer guarantee his saftey. He abdicated and fled to the neutral Netherlands. The German military began to approch the Allies, but their feelers were rejected. The Allies were determined not the deal with German militarists. They insisted in only dealing with civilian political officials. A German Government was hastily formed and asked for an armistice based on President Wilson's 14 Points. After determining that the request came from a civilian German Government and not the Kaiser or German military, the Allies accepted the German offer. The gun fell silent after 4 years of vicious fighting at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month (November 11, 1918). There had been over 8.5 million soldiers killed and 21.2 million wounded. Germans were shocked. Earlier in 1918, many had thought the war had been essebntuially won. (This was to later be used by the NAZIs to perpetrate the stab in the back conspiracy accusations.)
The Allies force the German Government to sign the Versailles Treaty. The Treaty provides for the Germans to accept responsibility for the war, disarm, and pay retributions. Substantial areas of the territory of Imprial Germany are awarded to neighboring states (Belgium and France) or to newly createc states (Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, and Poland). The Treaty prohibits any unification of Germany and Austria. Germany was also stripped of its colonies. The Treaty is very unpopular in Germany. As civilian politicans sign the Treaty rather than the military, Germans come to blame the civilian government rather than the military for the Treaty. In the future, right wing politicans, especially the NAZIs would plsay upon the unpopularity of the treaty.
The Communists taking advantage of the disorder in post-War Germany stage an uprising. The newly formed republican government is rorced to rely on right-wing Freikorps to supress the Communists. This was to have serious consequences for the future of the Weimar Reoublic. Many industrialists as well as middle-class Germans were unerved by the Coimmunist uprisings. Many left-wing workers became suspicious of the Government for its use of the Freikorps.
Freiderich Ebert who had helped negotiate the Armistace and associated with the Versailles Treaty became the first president of the Republic. The Government first meets in Weimar rather than Berlin. This decession results from the unstable security situation in Berlin with politicalrioting and other disorders.
Following the Sparticist Uprising (1919), right-wing extremists attemp to seize power in the Kapp Putch (1920). The Kapp Putsch was the initial military response to thr restructions of the Versailles Treaty. It was an open rebellion by military officers still loyal to the monarchy. It was led by an East Prussian Junker,
Kapp, supported by World War I leadet General Ludendorff, and Captain Ehrhardt. There was condsiderable support within the Army evenn on the part of officers not involved in the putsch. Many officers were threatened by demobilization to met the 100,000 limit set by the Versailles Treaty. Kapp and his associayes seized control of Berlin. Kapp declared military law. He authorized the death penalty against strikers. Weimar officials were unable to oppose Kapp militarily. Their were no military units loyal to the Government to deploy. The Republic was ineffectual in defeating the putsch, but despite thevthreats of execultion, the Kapp Putsch was defeated through a general strike. [Gumbel] Another factor was that if the Kapp Putsch had succeeded, the Allies almost certainly would have uintervened.
Adolf Hitler who has seized control of a small ring-wing party, the NAZIS, formed the SturmAbteilung (SA) which came to be jnown as the Storm Troppers or Brown Shirts because of the color of their uniform dshirts. Hitler conceived of the SA as a para-military force to intimidate his political opponents and seize power.
German had been united by The victory of Prussian Army aided by the smaller armies of other German states in the Franco Prussian War. Germany was thus united around the Prussian state with its important martial influence. The military thus had enormous influence in Germany, even after World War I. The Germany army under the Weimar Republic was referred to as the Reichswehr. It was the Army that organized efforts to evade the disarmament restrictions of the Versailles Treaty. In the German Empire the military had been a virtual state within a state. There had been huge budgets, an aristocratic, cohesive social system, and close contacts with major industrialists.
[Gumbel] Under the Weimar Republic the much-reduced and thus imbitered military continued to control military policy and not civilian officials. A major factor here was civilian officials given the high-level of oposition needed to court the army knowing they might have to rely on the army to put down putches and rebellions. Civiliam Weimar offivcials never attempted to staff the Army with officers commited to the Republic and democracy. Rather the officer-corps was dominated by officers who continued to be sympathetic to the monarcy. As a result, despoite the fact that Weimar elected officials from the the Center, Democratic, and Socialist parties supported by the industrial working class as well as sections of the middle class. [Gumbel] This was further complicated with Hindenburg was elected president (1925). Many Germans viewd the Reichwehr as the embodiment of German patriotism and civiliam politicans with contempt. As the NAZI Part grew one development which caused increasing concern to Reichwehr commanders was the SA. Under NAZI leader Ernst Röhm, a confident of Hitler, the SA came to outnumber the Reichwehr. It was a private army posing a real threat to the Reichwehr itself.
The Weimar Government adopted a new flag for Germany. The flag of Imperial Government was a black, red, and white flag. Weimar adopted a new black, red, and gold flag. This was based on the banners udsed during the 1848 revolutions, which sought to create a unified democratic Germany. This flag was never popular with the monarchist-minded military. [Gumbel]
The Allies calculate that Germany owedcwar reprarations of É6.6 billion. German officials protest that this is an unrealistic high figure that Germany could never pay, especially given the shartered state of the Germant economy after the War. The British and French continued to insist on that figure.
The German military had been the most powerful in Europe. The Prussian officer class which had been the backbone of German military leadership was extremely resentful of the limitations imposed by the Treaty. Among the severe penalties
that the treaty imposed on Germany was a comprehensive disarmament regime. Germany was prohibited from weapons such as combat aircraft, tanks, and submarines. Severe limititations were put on the size of the military forces. As a
result, the Germans from the breginning set out to evade the limitations. The military frustrated in its efforts to seize control of the Government (ythe Kapp Putsch), began to develop sureptious efforts to evade the Versailles Treaty. The NAZI rearmament program beginning after their seizure of power is the best known evasion, but efforts to evade the Treaty began years before in the Weimar
Rdepublic. Some of these were authorized by the civilian Weimar Governmnt. Others were conducted by the military in secret, both from the Allies and from the Government. Some of these efforts were suptergfuges to like non-military names to desguise the purposes of groups and keeping military connections secret. Another ploy was to conduct activities and programs in foreign countries. One of the first steps was the Rapollo Treaty (1922) with the Soviets.
The Germans as they had warned, were unavle to meet the reparation payments and default. The French and Belgians moived troops into the Ruhr and organize an occupation to enforce thereparation payments. Some of the French troops are Black colonial forces. The NAZIs are later to make use of the babies fathered byb the occupation soldiers, referring to them as the "Rhineland Bastards". German workers stage a general strike. The Ruhr was the industrial heartland of Germany. The German economy was devestated. The Government prints marks to meet its financial obligations. The result is hyper inflation. Middle class Germans see their savings wiped out. Photographs from the era show children with wagons full of valuelass bank notes or playing with the bills. The collaose of the Mark further weakens the support of the middle class. This is a critical development because in any democratic society it is always the middle class that is the backbone of democratic government.
Gustav Stresemann (1878-1929) was appointed Chancellor (1923). He ended the policy of passive ressistance to the Allied occupation of the Ruhr. The also acted to end hyper-inflation, introducing the Reichmark, a new currency to stabilize the currency. Strssman surved also served as Foreign Minister (1923-29). He was generally seen as a spokesman for German industrialists. As foreign minister, however, he worked diligently to gain Germany a respected place in world affairs. Here he achieved considerable success. His approsch was to fulfill German treaty requirements and in return to seek conciliation with with the Alliefd powers and moderation of their repriation demsnds. He hekped to secure Allied evacuation of the Ruhr (1925) and the Rhineland. He accepted the Dawes Plan for rescheduling repsaration payments (1924). He was an architect of the Locarno Pact (1924) and helped to secure German entry into the League of Nations (1926). He shared the the 1926 Nobel Peace Prize with Briand. He signed the Kellog-Briand Pact for Germany (1928). As has happened in msny other countries, his achievemebts were more recognized abroad thann at home. German public opinion gradually became radicalized by left and right wing political figures.
Hitler uses the SA to stage a putch in Munich. As it was launched from a beer hall, it became known as the Beet Hall Putch. It is quickly supressed. Hitler is arrested and jailed in Landsberg Prison. He only serves 9 months. While inprisoned he writes Meim Kampf with the assistance of his secretary Rudolf Hess. He decided to use the political process to seize power, but clearly states in the book his vision for Germany and Europe.
American statesman Charles Gates Dawes (1865-1951) formulated a plan to spread out the German repration payments over a much longer period which he proposed to the Allied Reprirations Commission. Dawes also helped to arrange for American loans to Germany. The plan became known as the Dawes Plan. Dawes was receive a Nobel Peace Prize (1925). He was also elected Calvin Cooldidge's Vice President (1924). The Dawes PLan did help revive the Germany economy, butb left it heavilyb linked to the American economy with severe consequences when the Depression unfolded (1929).
Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg along with Field Marshall Lundendorf had been the two key key German military commanders of the German World War I military effort. He was elected president of the Republic (1925). His election is an indication of the degree to which right-wing elements had succeeded in transferring responsibility for the disasster of Wotld War I from the military to civilian politicans. Note that in the major Allied countries (Americam France, and Germany), no military leader became an important political leader after the War. It was the aging President Hidenburg that would eventually consent to making Hitler Chancellor (1933).
Britain, France, and Germany negotiate the Locarno Treaties (1925) the terms of which recognized the boundary between France and Germany. The feeling of good will resulting from the Treaty among the world war I atagonists is known as the Locarno Honeymoon. The Treaty included no guarantee for boundaries in the East. The Soviet Union was not included in tghe negotiations and many Bolshevicks considered the treaty as a hostile act aimed at the Soviet Union.
Germany is allowed to join the League of Nations (1926). Many considered this as a step symbolizing Germany rejoining the international community.
The Kellog-Briand Pact was a major step in 20th century diplomacy. Much of the world (68 countries) condemned war and pledged to renounce war "as an instrument of nationsl; policy". These countries agreed to persue peaceful meansc to solve international dissputres. The Pact is named after its chief promoters, French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand and American Secretary of State F. B. Kellog. However lofty its goals, there was no mechanism included to enforce the pkledge. As Amerivans had not joined the League of Nations and it was an issue in American politics, the League was not mentioned in the Pact.
The Weimar era edperirenced a rich flowering of the arts with notable work in architecture, art, literature, movies, and other media. German artists were important in the development of modern art. I do not think, however, there are yet any of these German artists archived in the HBC art section. Hitler who fancied himself an artidt hated their work, The NAZIs were later to spondsor an exhibition of decadent art. Many of these artists fleedc Germany, many coming to New York. Not wll known today is that the German film industry led by UFA was a major competitor to Hollywood in the internation movie market. German novelist Eich Maria Remarque (1897- ) published All Quiet on the Western Front (1929). It was an immediate success both in Germany and in the Allied countries. This anti-war novel was widely read and popular films were made based on the book. The fact that an anti-war book was so popular in Germany demonstrates how most Germans were at the time opposed to War, even to correct what they saw as their legitimate grevinces. Hitler was often frustrated by this and was careful to adjust his message so as not to overtly advocate war. The NAZIs of course hated the book. As a result, Remarque had to flee Germany (1932) even before the NAZI seizure of power. Remarque was high on the list of books burned after the NAZI seizure of power (1933). He came to America where he cointinued to write. His books after the War dealt with man's adjustment to a chotic war-torn world. Many artists, movie actors and directors, and writers who fled Germany after the NAZI take over came to America. This played a major role in the artistic development of America. Significantly anothervarea in which thjis ocvcurred was nuclear physics.
American industrialist Own D. Young (1874-1962) conceived of a plan to finally settle German World War I repriations. Young proposed amending the Dawes Plan by reducing the German repriations to É2 billion. It was adopted by the Allies, but the Depression and NAZI seizure of power made it inoperative.
The New York Stock Market crashed (1929). The result was a world-wide depression. The countries most closely connected with the U.S. economy were the most affected. Germany was especially affected by the collapse of the U.S. economy. The Weimar Government took steps to address the economic crisis, but the increased unemployment was a major factor in increasing support for the NAZIs in German elections. This helped to make the NAZIs the single most important party in Germany, although they never achieved a majority in the Reichstag. Many Germans after Hitler's seizur of power credited the NAZIs for ending the Depression.
The Saar is a heavily industrialized region with important coal resources. Itv is located on the French norder north of Loraine. The population is mostly German-speaking Catholics. The Saar under the terms of the Versaiiles Treaty was made an autonomous territory administered by France under League of Nation supervision until its final dstatus woukld be determined by a plrbecite schuled for 1935. France until that date had a right to exploit the coal mines. Allied occupation troops withdraw from the Saar (1930). The population overwealming voted to return to Geramny in the plebecite (1935).
Hitler as leader of Germany's lsargest political party runs agaist Hidenburg in the 1932 elections. He runs the first modern political campaign in German history. He uses radio effectively. He flies froim city to city. The Hitler Youth is mobilized to support him. Many Germans see him as modern, forward looking politican. Hindenburg wins the election.
Hindenburg in an effort to control escalting political violence in Germany appoints Hitler Chancellor (January 1933). The Reichstag is burned in a fire. The NAZIs blamed the Communidts and arrest Communist delegates. This enables the NAZIs with the support of righ-wing allies to push through the Enabling Act, turning Germany into a NAZI Party dictatorship. This effectively ended the Weimar Republic. When Hindenburg dies (1934), Hitler becomes Führer (1934).
Gumbel. E.J. Disarmament and Clandestine Rearmament under the Weimar Republic. Gumbel was a pacifists who helped expose the German rearmament program.
He was as a result charged with high treason by Weimar authorities.
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