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Syria is a modern state dating from the post-World War II era, but there isa long historical tradition. The Syrians trace their state back to the Assyrians. Pompey the Great annexed Selucid Syria for Rome (64 AD). The Romans added the Nabatean kingdom to its Syrian province (106). This meant Antioch, one of the great cities of the Middle East. When the Roman Empire was split, Syria became a province of the Eastern Empire which evolved into the Byzantine Emoire (395 AD). Islamic Arab armies seized Syria from Byzantium becoming part of the new Islamic Caliphate (636). The Ottoman Turks conquered Syria (1516). At this time the Ottomans established their control over much of the Arab world. The Ottomans controlled Syria for the following four centuries. At first Ottoman rule was progressive and resulted in economic progress. The Ottomons pemitted a degree of autonomy which varied over time. Gradually conditions in Syria and other Arab areas deteriorated, becoming backward and poor in comparison to Europe. Egypt under Mohammed Ali after the Napoleonic Wars began to exet its independence from Ottoman rule. Egypt conquers Syria (1831). The Great Powers (Britain and Austria) force the Egyptians tobwithdraw from Syria (1840). Islamic mobs massacre Christians in Damascus (1860).
The French and British open the Suez Canal (1869). This largely replaces overland trade routes and thus adversely affected Syria economically. As a result of World War I, Syria came under French control, but achieved independence after World War II. The country's independent history has been dominated by the conflict with Israel. The country had dabled with Arab socialism and union with Egypt. The Ba'ath Party gradually gained influence and estanlished one-party rule in the country under Hafez al-Assad, the defense minister (1970). Assad has established asystem of state corruption which has left the country economically destitute and a backwater of the world economy. Upon his death he was replaced by his son, Bashar al-Assad (2000). After a brief experiment with political liberalization, Bashar has essentially continued with his father's policy of authoritarian rule and sate corruption.
Neolithic sites have been found in Syria.
The earliest evidence of civilizatioin in Syria have been found at Ebla (2500 BC). This is in norther Syrua close to modern Aleppo. This was contempraneous with the early Egypt and Mesopotamia civilizations.
The Akkadian dynasty of Sumer destroy Ebla (about 2300 BC).
The Syrians trace their state back to the Assyrians. King Shamsi-Adad I establishes his capital Shubat Enlil in northeastern Syria (about 1800 BC). This is the first period of Assyrian expansion. The Assyrians were defeated by Babylonian King Hammurabi (1700 BC).
The Hittites from Anatolia emerged as a major force in the Middle East. They added norther Syria to their Empire (about 1600). Syria became a battlefield between the Hitties and Egyptians. The petty kingdom of Mitanni appears in southern Syria (avout 1500 BC). The large empires of the region fight to control it. The Hittites conquer Mitani (about 1500 BC). The first great battle recorded in detail was fought at Qadesh in Syria between the Hittites and the Egyptians (1274 BC). The two empires were attempting to control valuable trade routes.
Arameans begam migrating into modern Syria (about 1200 BC). The set up a number of petty kingdoms. Their largest city was Aram, located near to modern Damascus.
The Assyrians were a semietic people who first appeared to history (14th century BC). They became a great military power, building one of the great empires of westen Asia controlling the Fertile Cressent and Egypt. It was at first a small city state city state on the upper Tigris north northeast of Babylonia. Assyria was bounded in the north and east by the Taurus and Zagros mountains--the Mountains of Ashur. Two areas were the central Assyrian breadbasket: the Arbel plain and the Nineveh plain. Here crops as agriculture became more sophisticated could be grown without irrigation, unlike in Babylonia further down river. The rich agriculture provided the wealth that supported a massive army as well as as an educated class and gifted craftsmen. The first great Assyrian king was Shalmaneser I (1276-57 BC). Assyria achieved some importance under Tiglath-pileser I (12th century BC). Assyria became a major power with the great war leader Ashurnasirpal II (9th century BC). He set up the beginnings of an imperial administration with his conquests. His successors (Shalmanser III, Tiglath-pileser III, and Sargon) carved out a great Middle Eastern Empire.
They conquered Aram (732 BC). Sargon's son Sennacherib consolidated these gains. Esar Haddon (681-668 BC) conquered the Chaldaeans and sacked Babylon (669 BC).
They also conquered the northern Jewish kingdom of Israel. The tribes of Israel disappeat to history as the result of the Assyrian conquest. Sennacherib also gained control of Egypt. Assur-bani-pal (669-633 BC) is seen as reigning during the height of the Empire with important artistic achievements. After Egypt broke away, however, the Assyrian Empire rapidly declined. Assyria despite building a huge empire, rapidly collapsed. Nineveh was sacked (612 BC). Assyria was absorbed by first a revived Babylonian Empire and then the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great.
The Assyrian capital is conquuered by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia (612 BC). He then moves south and defeats the souther Jewish kingdom of Judea. This leads to the Jewish Babalonian captivity
The Babylonians were conquered in turn by the rising Persian Empire. Cyrus the Great added Syria to his Empire (539 BC).
Alexander in the process of defeating Darious and the Persian Empire adds Syria to his Empire (333-332 BC). After Alexander's death, Syria becomes part of the Seleucid empire. It is at this time under the rule of Antiochus III and IV that the name Syria begins to be used (about 200 BC).
Pompey the Great annexed Selucid Syria for Rome (64 AD). The Romans added the Nabatean kingdom to its Syrian province (106). This meant Antioch, one of the great cities of the Middle East. Syria was an important Roman province in part because of the trade routes tht tranvwse what is modern Syria.
When the Roman Empire was split, Syria became a province of the Eastern Empire which evolved into the Byzantine Emoire (395 AD). This occurred after Constantine's conversion and at aime that Syriaas becoming Chritianized.
Islamic Arab armies seized Syria from Byzantium becoming part of the new Islamic Caliphate (636). The Umayyad Dynasty establish their capital at Damscus (661). The Abbasids moved the capitl of the Caliphate to Bagdad (750). Egypt annexes Syria (877). Syria becomes the center of the Hamadan kingdom (929). The Turkish Seljuqs conquer Syria (1060s).
Crusaders seized Western parts of Syria as part of new Christian Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099). Saladin conquers the Crusader kingdoms and resists Richard I's efforts to retake Jerusalem (1174-87). Saladin and the subseuent Ayyubids return stability and economic prosperity. , bring stability back to the region, with positive influence on the economy.
The Egyptian Mamlukes extend their control to most of Syria (about t1250).
The last Crusaders are driven out of Syria (about 1300). A strong stae is established in Syria which persecutes local sects.
The Mongols under Tamerlane devastated much of the Middle ast, including Syria (1401).
The Ottoman Turks conquered Syria (1516). At this time the Ottomans established their control over much of the Arab world. The Ottomans controlled Syria for the following four centuries. At first Ottoman rule was progressive and resulted in economic progress. The Ottomons pemitted a degree of autonomy which varied over time. Gradually conditions in Syria and other Arab areas deteriorated, becoming backward and poor in comparison to Europe. Egypt under Mohammed Ali after the Napoleonic Wars began to exet its independence from Ottoman rule. Egypt conquers Syria (1831). The Great Powers (Britain and Austria) force the Egyptians tobwithdraw from Syria (1840). Islamic mobs massacre Christians in Damascus (1860).
The French and British open the Suez Canal (1869). This largely replaces overland trade routes and thus adversely affected Syria economically.
The Ottoman Empire seeing the opportunity to regain lost territory, joined the Central Powers in World War I (October 1914). The Ottomans attempted to turn the War into an Islamic crusade against the Russians, British, and French. An Ottomon offese in the Caucaseus failed disaterously. The Ottomans launched the Armenian genocide (1915-16). A few survivors managed to reach Syria. An Ottomon offensive designed to seize Suez failed (1915). This attempt had little resonance in the Arab provinces of the Empire. The Arabs in fact saw the War as an opportunity to gain their independence. The British promoted an Arab Revolt launched by Hussayn Ibn Ali, the grand sharif of Mecca. The British offered Sharif Hussayn independence after the War. The British and French signed the Sykes-Picot Agreement (May 1916). They essentially divided the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire into areas of influence. France was given Lebanon and Syria as their area of influence. The Balfour Declaration concerning a Jewish Homeland in Palestine further complicated the situation (1917). The British laynched an offensive into Palestine, seizing Jerusalem (December 1917). A renewed offensive broke Ottoman armies. The Nritish Army was supported by Hussayn Aran Army organized by Col. Lawrence. The British entered Damascus. Another British Army in modern Iraq seized Bagdad and began moving north. The Ottomons asked for ceasefire ending the figting.
The French move into Lebanon and Syria. Lebanon clse to the coast and with a large Christian population proved easier to contriol. Faysal attempted to establish an Arab government in Damascus. While he failed, he succeeded with British support in setting up a government in Bagdad for Iraq. French forces clashed with King Faysal's Arab forces at the battle of Maysalun (1920). French forces proceeded to occupy Syria when the League of Nations approved a mandate for France. An Arab uprising, this rime better organized, attempted to ousr the French, but failed (1925-27). Syrian leaders and French officials negotiate an agreement prividing for substantial Syrian independence (1938). The French, however, refused to ratify this agreement.
The French turn over of Alexandretta, with the ancient Syrian capital of Antioch, to the Turks (1939).
After the fall of France. French authorities in Syria, recognized the authority of Vichy Government. This included a military force totling about 40,000 Legioneers and Muslim soldiers backed by 90 tanks and prepared fortifications. Admiral Darlan provided logistical support to the Germans and Italians in efforts to support the Rashid Ali revolt in Iraq. This was a clear violation of Vichy's neutrality. Syria located in the Eastern Mediterranean was of some strastegic importance. The British feared that Vichy would allow the Luftwaffe to establish air bases in the country. This would have threatened the British position in Egypt as well as provided a jumping off point to seize the oil fields in Iraq. Churchill thus ordered Wavell after putting down the Iraqii Revolt to seize Syria. Degualle assured Wavell that the Vichy garison would come over to the Free French with little resistance. They did not. After the failes pro-Axis coup in Iraq, British and Free French forces seize Syria. The Allies then commit to Syrian independence after the War. Elections are held (1943). President Shukri l-Kuwatli organizes a government. The French make some effort to maintain their influence after the War.
Syria aftr the War becomes a a charter member of United Nations (1945).
The United Natiins attempts to resolve the conflict in Palstinre by a compromise partition plan. The Arab world including the Syriahs reject any compromise. Syria participates in the joint Arab invasion of Palestine to destoy Israel (1948). I do not know know a great deal about Syrin prticipation in the War at this time. The Arabs assumed that the Jews would easily be defeated. The failure to defeat the Jews stuns the Arab world.
The Kurdish leader General Husni l-Zaim heds a junta which seizes power ((March 1949). Army officers overthrow Zaim and execute him (August 1949). A new constitution is promulgated and elections held.
Hashimu l-Atasi wins the election (September 1950).
Border clashes occur with Israel. The Isrelis were undertaking a drainage project in the border area.
Another military coup organized by Shishakli takes place (1951). President Atasi quickly resigned.
A new constitution is promugated (1953). The new constitution places substantial limitations on civil liberties. This is essentially the beginning of the end of Syrian democracy. nother militry coup forces out
Shishakli (1954). President Atasi is restored to power and reinstates the constitution of 1950. Syria begins to reoriente itself toward the Soviet bloc as was the case of Nasser's Egypt. Nasser electifies the Arab world by seizungv the Suez Cana (1956). The Anglo-French attempt to retake the Canal in league with the Isrealis during the Suez War alienates public opinion in Syria (1956). Tensions developed with Turkey, a NATO member (1959). Syrian officials charged that Turkey with American support. I know of no evidehce for such a plan. I'm not sure why Syrian officials made this charge. The United Nations helped to descalate the situation. The Soviets begin to increase economic and military assistance.
Presidentb Gamal Abu l-Nasser in Egypt becomes the leading figure in the Arab world, promoting Pan-Arabism. Syria and Egypt establish the United Arab Republic with Nasser the president of the unified country (February 1958). Nasser immediately moves to dissolve political parties in Syria (March 1958). He also introduces aland refirm program, limiting the size of land holdings. Nasser next unifies ministries with centralized offices in Cairo (October 1958). Nasser appoints Syrias to the cabinent (March 1960).
Nasser established a single UAR cabinet (August 1961). Opposition to the union gradually increases in Syria. Part if this is due to the new policies introduced by Nasser. The Army takes control in Damascus and declared Syria independent once more (September 1961). Nasser made no attempt to preserve the union.
The Ba'ath or Renaisance Party becomes increasingly influention, especially in Iraq and Syria. The Syrian military oversees the drafting of a new constitution which is approved by areferendum (December 1961). A new Syrin national government is established. The new government makes concessions to both the growing nt Ba'ath Party and to pan-Arabists disappointecby the filure of the UAR. A bloodless military coup installs central Ba'ath leaders (March 1963). The Ba'ath leders set up a national council with Major General Amin el-Hafez at its head. The new regime renews apan-Arb efforts. They attemp to explpre the possibility of joining with Iraq and Egypt. The discussions with Egyopt are unsuccesful, but some prof=gress is made with neighboring Iraq. This ends, however, with the overthrow of the Ba'ath in Iraq (November 1963).
The Government sets up a new presidency council to replace the the national council (May 1964). The presidency council is composed of five members (three civilian and two military). Another military coup is executed (February 1966). The new regime ends the influence of foreign Ba'ath intellectuals in Syria. n politics. The Syrian Ba'ath Party dominated by a more nationalist outlook predominate. Nuur ad-Din il-Attasi is appointed deputy prime minister.
Soviet military assistance help both Syria as well as Iraq and Egypt to build up powerful militry forces including both modern air forces and armored formations. They plan a coordinated invasion of Israel under Egyptian leadership. Syria participates in the disaterous Six-Day War against Israel. The Isrealis strike first before the Arabs are prepared and destroy the Egyptian air force. The Egyoptian army in Sianai is ordred to withdraw which becomes a panic, Nasser tells King Husseni that the Isrealis are being defeated and the King orders an attack on Jerusalem, but the Jordanians are also defeated. All this occurs before the Syrians attack in force to support their allies. The Usrealis are this able to focus their efforts on the Su=yrains in the north. A major target is the Golan Heigts. The Syrians had for years been usung artillery emplacenents there to shell Isreali kibitzes. The Isrealis succeed in seizing the Golan befor a cease fire is declared. The Syrian Air Force and much of the Aemy's armored force is destroyed in the fighting.
Syria's defeat in the Six Days War and loss of territory resulted in considerable reassessment within government circles. There were two principal factions within the Ba'ath Party. The nationalist wing was led by Defence Minister Hafez al-Assad. The socialist wing was led by Salah Jadid. Assad emerges as the victor in party infighting and forms a new government (November 1970). Assad is elected presidentv in a referendum, meaning a non-competitic=ve election (March 1971).
The Soviet Union resupply its Arab allies with advanced militry equipmebntvafter the disasterous Six Days War. Egypt and Syria stage a coordinated attck on Israel (October 1973). Both the Egyptians and Syrians achieve some early successes, but again are defeated by the Isrelis.
Syria intervened in Lebanon (1976)
Islamicists in Syria saw Syrian intervention in Lebanon as favoring the Christian community. This helped the Muslim Brotherhood increase their support. The Muslim Brotherhood stageca rebellion in in Hama and Aleppo (March 1980). An attemted assasination of Assad occurs (June 1980). The Government makes membership in the Muslim Brotherhood a capital offence (1981). Thecsecurity forces ininiate a brutal crackdiwn on the Brotherhood. Governmental actions on the Muslim Brotherhood result in thousands of deaths. There is no exact count. Estimates of those killed in Hama alone vary, assessments range between 5,000 and 25,000 (February 1982).
Assad emerges from the Muslim Brotherhood insurrection as the absolute ruler of Syria. Syria under Assad has a terrible human rights record. Human rights uin some quarters are considered a luxury for modern industrial states. In fact there is astrong correlation between human rights and economic modernization and growth. The Assad regime is a system of state corruption which has resulted in a moribund economy leaving Syria poverty sticken and with little economic opportunity. Assad staged a Soviet-style show election. He claims 99.9 percent of the votes (1985). Britain and the United States identify Syria as a supporter of international terrorism and recall their ambassadors (1986).
The United States sends another ambassador after Syria closes the training camps of Abu Nidal (1987).
Syrian establishes control over much of Lebanon (1990). Syria participates in the international coaltion to drive Iraqi troops out of Kuwait (1991). Assad refuses to engage in the Oslo Peace process (1993). President Clinton reports that he showed some interest in peace with Israel, but that the Isrealis failed to engafe. H cwas apparently insisting on a Sea Of Galiee coast and the return of the Golan. President Assad died (2000).
President Assad is replaced by his son Bashar al-Assad. He was reportedly quickly installed to preclude any political infighting over his faher's successor. Israel attacks a site near Damascus which it concluded was a training ground for Islamic Jihad (2003). The Syriahs deny the Isreali charge.
Increasing international pressure leads to aSyrian pullout from Lebanon (2004). U.S. sources accuse Syria of allowing insurgent forces to cross the Syrian border into Iraq. Assad met with President Jalal Talabani and issues a condemnation of attacks on both Iraqi and U.S. security forces. Russia under President Putin has expanded military cooperation with Syria.
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