World War I Country Trends: China



Figure 1.--Chinese workers laborers comprised the largest non-European workforce during World War I. About 100,000 Chinese were recruited. Chinese workers were active primarilky with the British, but also were involved with the French and Russians. They were involved in a wide range of projcts, invluding constructing and repairiung trenches, servicing tanks, munitions work, transporting supplies and other functions. This all began when China was still officially neutral. Here we see Chinese workers servicing British tanks on the Western Front.

China was not a factor in World War I. but the war affected the country. China was far away from both the Eastern and Western Fronts and at the time saw itself victimized by all of the major beligerant countries. Some early fighting, however, occurred in China. Japan which had a naval treaty with Britain declared war on Germany. The British wanted to use the Japanese rather than weaken the Grand Fleet to dispatch vessels to the Pacific. Japan spmewhat to Britain's surprise, eagerly joined the war, seeing the possibility of acquiring Germany’s Pacific colonies and take over its Chinese concessions. The Japanese dispatched a naval squadron to intercept the German Pacific Squadron commanded by Admiral von Spee seeking refugee in Tsingtao Harbour. The Japanese blockaded Tsingtao and minor naval skirmishes occurred. The Japanese landed troops on the Shantung Peninsula and moved south toward Kiaochow (September 2, 1914). Kiaochow had a garrison of 5,500 German and Austro-Hungarian troops. The Japanese drive was reinforced by a British expiditionary regiment made up of Indian (Sikh) and Welsh troops (September 24). After some intense fighting the Germans and Austro-Hungarians surrendered (November 7). This was the only significant fighting taking place in China. Britain like the other major beligerant countries were running short of men because of the terrible casulties. The British suffered dreadful casulties on the Somme (1916). One effort to address this problem was to recruit workers throughout the Empire. As Britain had Chinese treaty ports, this meant China was one of the countries where workers were recruited. Most came from Shan Tung (Shandong), but there were also recruits from Honan (Hunan). The British also recruited missionry and sinologue officers. About 100,000 Chinese were recruited. The Chinese labor units under British military descipline debarked from Weihaiwei (Weihai) which was a British treaty port until 1930. The Chinese were used to dig trenches and build other fortifications. They were not used in the actual fighting, but about 2,000 died from mines, illness (such as the Inflenza Epidemic after the War), and other causes. A few were shot as a result of a mutiny at Boulogne. [Summerskill] China declared war on Germany (1917). There was no real Chinese concern about Germany as the British and Japanese has seized Germany's concessions in China. China sa, however, diplomatic problems since Japan had joined the Allies and the Royal Navy commanded the seas. Despite the declaration of war, I do not know of any significant Chinese contribution to the Allied war effort. China after the War benefited from American insistence at Versailles that the Open Door Policy be accedpted by the major powers. This was a major issue at the Washington Naval Conference (1921-22).

Importance

China was far away from both the Eastern and Western Fronts and at the time saw itself victimized by all of the major beligerant countries. China was not a major factor in World War I. China provided aid to the Allies, mostly proividing workers. Boith China anbd Japan were thinking about the post-War era as thet developed war-time policies. And the War affected both countries. [Boissoneault]

Japanese Seizure of German Tsingtao (August-November 1914)

Some early fighting occurred in China. Japan which had a naval treaty with Britain declared war on Germany. The British wanted to use the Japanese rather than weaken the Grand Fleet to dispatch vessels to the Pacific. Japan spmewhat to Britain's surprise, eagerly joined the war, seeing the possibility of acquiring Germany’s Pacific colonies and take over its Chinese concessions. The Japanese dispatched a naval squadron to intercept the German Pacific Squadron commanded by Admiral von Spee seeking refugee in Tsingtao Harbour. The Japanese blockaded Tsingtao and minor naval skirmishes occurred. The Japanese landed troops on the Shantung Peninsula and moved south toward Kiaochow (September 2, 1914). Kiaochow had a garrison of 5,500 German and Austro-Hungarian troops. The Japanese drive was reinforced by a British expiditionary regiment made up of Indian (Sikh) and Welsh troops (September 24). After some intense fighting the Germans and Austro-Hungarians surrendered (November 7). This was the only significant fighting taking place in China.

Chinese Recruits

Britain like the other major beligerant countries were running short of men because of the terrible casulties. The British suffered dreadful casulties on the Somme (1916). One effort to address this problem was to recruit workers throughout the Empire. As Britain had Chinese treaty ports, this meant China was one of the countries where workers were recruited. Most came from Shan Tung (Shandong), but there were also recruits from Honan (Hunan). The British also recruited missionary and sinologue officers. About 100,000 Chinese were recruited. Chinese workers were active primarilky with the British, but also were involved with the French and Russians. They were involved in a wide range of projcts, invluding constructing and repairiung trenches, servicing tanks, munitions work, transporting supplies and other functions. This all began when China was still officially neutral. [Jeffery] As China was still neutral, commercial businesses were formed to provide the labor on a contract basis. The Chinese labor units under British military descipline debarked from Weihaiwei (Weihai) which was a British treaty port until 1930. The Chinese were used to dig trenches and build other fortifications. They were not used in the actual fighting, but about 2,000 died from mines, illness (such as the Inflenza Epidemic after the War), and other causes. A few were shot as a result of a mutiny at Boulogne. [Summerskill]

Tewnty One Demands (1915)

When World War broke out in Europe, President Yuan Shikai was in the process of creating a dictatorship and eventually resestablishing the imperial system with himself as emperor. Japan having fought the First Sino-Japanese War with China (1894-96) and seized Korea (1909) used the instability in China to press major demands. After establishing themselves in the German concession in Shandong (1914), the Japanese presented the Twenty One Demands (二十一個條項, Èr shí yīgè tiáo xiàng) to Yuan's Government. They made extensive demands on China, but in essence would have turned China into an emense Japanese protectorate. Yuan rejected the Japanese demands, but did accept the Japanese demand that China recognize its possession of the former German concession in Shandong. Yuan also accepted Japanese interests in southern Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia. Yuan's attempt to become the new emperor eventually resulted in rebellion and provincial military commanders establishing themselves as war lords. Admost the turmoil, Yuan died. The idea of a united China was firmly established in the Chinese mind. The war lords made alliances which were constantly shifting in an effort to seize control of the national government in Beijing. Japan continued to press their demands. The Allies (Britain, France, and Italy, but not the United states) in secret communiques agreed to recognize the Japanese claims in China in exchange for the expanded Japan's naval action against Germany. (The Japanese committed a naval squadron in the Mediterranean.) The Twenty-One Demands would be the subject of extensive negotiations between Japan and China as well as with other countries, especiallt the United states. Japanese Governments would at times press the demands and other times pursue more moderate polivies. But these demabds were a basic statement of what Japanese natiinalists wanted in China and woukd eventually lead to the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45). Threatened with war, the corrupt Anfu government signed a humiliating treaty with Japan, acceding to Japan’s demands.

Declaration of War (1917)

China declared war on Germany (1917). There was no real Chinese concern about Germany as the British and Japanese has seized Germany's concessions in China--Shandong. China saw, however, diplomatic problems since Japan had joined the Allies and the Royal Navy commanded the seas. Despite the declaration of war, I do not know of any significant Chinese contribution to the Allied war effort other then the Chinese men recruited. China hoped to recover Shandong from the Japanese in the podt-War settlement. Chinese support for the Allies was conditioned on t control over Shandong Province, the birthplace of Confucius. The Chinese believe that it would be returned to China once the Allies won the War, but the outcome of the War was stil in doubt at the time. This commitment appears to have been made orally. I do not know of any actual diplomatic document. Agt the time Japanese support was more imprtant as they actually made a military commitment to the Allies, incluing a destroyer squadron in the meitranean. The Chinese appear to have been unaware of the secret commitments the Allies (Briain and France) made to Japan.

Versailles Peace Treaty (1919)

China had joined the Allkies and declared war ion Germany, although they virtually no contributiin to the Allied war effort. Even though they had joined the Allies, the Allies at Versailles advised the Chinese to sign away rights to the former German-controlled Shandong Province to Japan. We are not sure to what extent if any, the Americans were involved in this Allied initiative. The United States had not been involved in the earlier Allied offer to Japan. This was an unprecedented action aimed at an Allied nation. For the Chinese Governmengt, it was an humiliating diplomatic affront. This dispute over Article 156 of the Versailles Treaty of Versailles became known as the Shandong Problem (山東問題, Shāndōng Wèntí). This not only embarassed the Chinese Government, but Allied Governments as well. The resulting press furor made public that secret treaties had been signed by the Allies to entice Japan to enter World War I and to expand participation. And it further embaraassed the Chinese Government when it became public that that China had actually agreed to the surrender of Shandong. As a result, Wellington Kuo (顧維鈞), China’s ambassador to Paris, refused to sign the Treaty.

May Fourth Movement (1919)

The Chinese Beiyang Government had signed a secret arrangemnent with Japan aceeding to the loss of Shandong. This was done to avoid a war with Japan and stave off the more expansive implmntation of Japan's Twenty-One Demands. After the War, at the Paris Peace Conference, the details of the secret deal with Japan became public knowledge in China (1919). The reaction in China was furious. The Chinese not only objected to the loss of an important province, but viewed the transfer as a betrayal by the Western powers who were widely despised because of the seizure of port cities. The Chinese also increasingly came to see Japan as an aggressive neigboring power. And it all thoroghly dstroyed the legitimacy of the alreay unpopular corrupt Beiyang warlord government established by former Imperial General Yuan Shi-kai (袁世凱). Students in Beijing staged massive demonstration against both the Beiyang Government and Japan (May 4). Some 3,000 students from 13 Beijing universities assembled at the Gate of Heavenly Peace at Tiananmen Square. They protested the Versailles Peace Conference. The students passed out fliers insisting that China would never accept the concession of Chinese territory to Japan or any other power. The students then marched to the legation quarter (where foreign embassies were located). They presented protest letters to foreign missions. Then in the afternoon, the students confronted the three pro-Japanese cabinet officials who had been involved in the secret treaties that encouraged Japan to enter the war. They denounced the Beiyang Government's attacked the Government's spineless inability to protect nationl interests and demanded a boycott of Japanese products. The students insisted on the resignation of three Chinese officials they identified as collaborating with the Japanese. They burned the residence of one of these officials and beat his servants. They also attacked China’s ambassador to Japan. [Wasserstrom] It is at this point that the police interbene and 32 students were arrested and beaten, just the beginning of attempts to supress the demonstrations. Reports of the Beijing students’ demonstration and arrest spread throughout China. The press immdiately demanded that the Government release the students. Students also staged demonstrations in Fuzhou. Guangzhou, Nanjing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Wuhan. This was followed by shop closings (June 1919). Students led a boycott of Japanese goods. Japanese nationals resident in China were attacked. Newly formed labor unions join the students and stage strikes. The disorders in cities throughout China scared the Government. As aresult, the Government agreed to manynof the demands. Thdehy released the arrested students and dismissed the three cabinet officials. Ultimatelly the entire cabinet resigned. The Chinese delegation at Versailles Peace Conference rejected the Treaty. Intelectuals and the general public were also outraged. The result was the May Fourth Movement. The intelectual off shoot of the patriotic student demonstrations was the New Culture Movement. Students and intectuals discussed China's future. A wide range of visions were offered. Students returning home from studies and often work abroad added to the political ferment. The ideas ranged from liberal democracy to communism and many permutations in between. Military power, however, still resided in the hands of the war lords (the former Imperial Army commanders).

American Open Door Policy

China after the War benefited from American insistence at Versailles that the Open Door Policy be accedpted by the major powers. This was a major issue at the Washington Naval Conference (1921-22). This included who would control Shandong Province. Japan withdrew its claim to Shandong Province.

Sources

Boissoneault, Lorraine. "The surprisingly important role China played in WWI, Smithsonian Magazine (August 2017).

Jeffery, Keith. 1916: A Global History.

Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. "Chinese Students and Anti-Japanese Protests, Past and Present," World Policy Journal.








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Created: 1:11 AM 4/22/2006
Last updated: 1:29 AM 11/30/2018