<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Estonian history Estonia history </TITLE></HEAD>

<BODY BGCOLOR="#000066" TEXT="#FFFF00" LINK="#FF0000" ALINK="#FFFF00" VLINK="#99CCFF">

<br>
<br>
<img src="/HBCgold.gif">
<br>
<br>
<hr>
<br>
<br>
<br>

<CENTER><h1>Estonian History</h1></CENTER>

<table border=0 cellpadding=20 width=40% align=right>
<tr>
<td><table border=5 width=90% align=right bgcolor=##7f00ff">
<tr>
<td>
<a href="/imagef/date/2007/10/est-red01bs.jpg">
<img src="/imagef/date/2007/10/est-red01s.jpg"></a>
<br>
<hr>
<i>Figure 1.--We think this is an Estonian portrait, but the boy's parents were apparantly Communists.  There were Estonian Communists, but they were a relatively small minority.  The inscription on the back suggests the portrait was taken in 1939, perhaps Estonian readers can tell us what it says.  I'm not sure if the writing is Estonian or Russian.  I thouht at first it might have been a photograph belonging to ethnic Russians that the Soviets brought into Estonia, but tht did not begin until 1940.  </i>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>

<p> Estonia was unknown to the ancient world.  The Baltic was a rough neigborhood in the mid-Middle ages as the Estonians were exposed to Viking raids.  The country enters into the written record as Christian Europe begins tom spread east.  Estonia was a part of historic Livonia and ruled by the Livonia knights (13th century).  Sweden acquired Estonia (1561).  Russia under Peter the Great conquered the area (1710).  <! ceded 1721 >  Under Russian rule Germans as a result of the Livonian Knights formed the ruling class.  As a result of the World War and the Russian Revolution, Estonia achieved its independence from Russia (1918).  A formal treaty was signed with the Bloshevicks (1920).  A democratic republic ruled the country.  President Konstantin Päts began authoriative rule (1934).  After the start of World War II, Stalin began to move against the Baltic republics.  He first demanded bases (1939) and then invaded all three countries and annexed them to the Soviet Union (1940).   The NAZIs occupied the Baltics as part of the invasion of the Soviet Union.  The Soviets retook the Baltics (1944).  For four decadeds the Baltics languased within the Soviet Empire, but was relatively prosperous.  For most of its history, Estonia has played a small role in European history.  This changed dramatically late in the the 20th century (1987-91).  It was in Estonia that the first overt opposition within the Sigiet Union appeard leading to the unraveling of the country.  Today Estonia is both democratic and prosperous with afree enterprise economy.  A sharp contrast to the path that President Putin has chosen for Russia.
<br>
<h2>Ancient History</h2>
<p> The ancestors of modern Estonians settled along the Baltic coast (3000 BC).  Linguistic studies suggestv that the Estonians share common origins with the Finns and Hungarians (Magayars).  Estonia was little known to the ancient world. 
<br>
<h2>Viking Era (9th-12th century)</h2>
<p> The Baltic was a rough neigborhood in the mid-Middle ages as the Estonians were exposed to Viking raids. 
Scandinavian peoples raid the Baltic coasts.  But this was not a one sided activity as the Balts mount raids on Scandinavia as well.  There were Estonian Vikings, but as far as I know they only operated within the Baltic. Scandinavian reports complain of Viking attacks from the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea (11th century).  Their most daring exploit was kidnapping Norwegian Queen Astrid and her son, future King Olaf Trygvesson.  They sell them into slavery.  Estonian Vikings pillage Sweden’s main town, Sigtuna.
<br>
<h2>Northern Crusades</h2> 
<p> Estonia enters into the written record as Christian Europe begins to spread east. With the Christinization of the German tribes and eventually even the northern tribes (Scadinavoans) and the development centralized authority, the new kingdoms begin to turn to the pagan east.  Thus developed the Baltic crusades.  This was a lengthy series of military campaigns which eventually transformed the eastern Baltics.  There were campaigns against the Livs, Letts and Estonians.  Finally the Prussians and the Finns fell to the crusaders.  The campaigns included military conquest followed by baptism, occupation and even geocidal extermination. [Christiansen, p. 93.]  Estonia was one of the final corners of medieval Europe to be Christianized.  Pope Celestine III called for a crusade against the remaining pagans in Northern Europe (1193).  Crusaders from Northern Germany established a stronghold at Riga.  After defeating and Chritenizing the Livs and Letts, the crusaders used them to assist in the campaign against the Estonians (1208).  Estonian historians refer to the conflict as the  Estonian ancient fight for independence (1208-27). The Estonian tribes proved a fierce foe.  And retaliated with raids on the Christians.  The Sword Brethren, a Germnan order, assisted by converted allies  won a major battle against the Estonians and killed their commander--Lembitu (1217).   Danish King Waldemar II landed an army at the Estonian town of Lindanisse (Tallinn).  The Danes defeated the Estonians at Battle of Lyndanisse (1219).  The Sword Brethren defeated the last Estonian stronghold--the island of Saaremaa (1227).  This left all of Estonia in Crusader hands.  
<br>
<h2>Livonia</h2> 
<p> The Danes found the Estonians difficult to rule.  The St.George's Night Uprising was launched by the Estonians of Harria (1343).  The Danes were driven out of large areas of Estonia.  The Danish king asked the  Livonian Order to restore Danish authority.
Eventually the King sold his Estonian dominions (Harria and Vironia) to the German Teutonic Order for 19,000 silver marks (1346).  The Teutonic Order then resold the area to the German Livonian Order for a 1,000 mark profit (1347).  The Livonian Knights supressed the Estonian rising.  Estonia became part of historic Livonia and was ruled by the Livonia knights (13th century).  As a result, the Germans become the landed gentry and native Estonians the feudal peasantry.  The German privlidged status would continue for 700 years.
   The principal city in Estonia during the medieval era was Tallinn.  The population was about 4,000 (1400).  The German influence was particularly noted in urban centers like Tallin.  Estonians make up about 40 percent of the population; Germans 30 percent; Swedes, Finns, Danes and Russians the remainder.   The principal languages were Estonian and German while the clergy and scholars still used use Latin.  The Estonians dominated the population of the countryside.
<br>
<h2>Reformation</h2>
<p> Martin Luther psted his 95 Thesis (1517).  The Reformatio quickly spread in Germany and along the Baltic, reaching Estonia.  Lutheran teaching began to be used in the liturgy (1523).  In part because of the Reformation, the the first book is published in Estonian (1525).
<br>
<h2>Sweden (1561-1710)</h2>
<p> Sweden acquired Estonia (1561).   They infroduce social reforms.  Tartu University was founded (1632).
<br>
<h2>Tsarist Russia (1710-1918)</h2>
<p> Russia under Peter the Great conquered the area as part of the <a href="/essay/war/swc/18/swc18-gnw.html">Great Northern War</a> (1710).  Tallin before the War had a population of 100,000.  About 80 percent died as a result as a result of starvation and the plague.  It would take two centuries to recover.  Sweden formally ceded Estonia to Russia (1721).  The Tsar does not upset the social order.  Under Russian rule Germans as a result of the Livonian Knights continued to form the ruling class.  Serfdom was abolished, decades before abolition in Russia (1816).  Estonian nationalism began to grow un Europe after the Napoleonic Wars and this trend reached Estonia (1860-85).  Estonia was affected by Tsarist policies which began to pusg Russification.  A rail line was completed connecting Tallin to St. Petersburg (1870).  Tallin became one of the most important ports in the Russian Empire.  This help bring about industrial development and the population of Tallin increased from 30,000 to over 100,000.
Estonian peasants attack the Czarist police and Baltic Germans (1905).  The Germans continued to be the ruling clas in the province, owning about half the cultivated land. 
<br>
<h2>World War I (1914-18)</h2>
<p> Estonia in the early 20th century had perhaps the most advanced economy in the Russian Empire. A desire for autonomy, however, caused friction with the Imperial Government. The Government of Russian prime minister Pyotr Stolypin devised plans to strengthen the central government and Russify Estonia and Latvia. The Government assessed the colonisation of the Baltics with Russian peasants. The Baltics played an important role in Russian military planning, especially the defence of Petrograd (St. Petersburg). The Russians built fortifications in Estonia. Especially important was the Baltic fllets naval base and shipyards at Tallinn. Another naval base was built on the Northern coast--Peter I. About 100 000 Estonians were drafted into the Russian Army. About 10,000 men were killed in the War. Estonian politicians generally remained loyal to Russia during the War. They hoped to be rewarded with greater autonomy after the War and feared Gmanification if the Germany prevailed. 
<br>
<h2>Russian Revolution (1917)</h2>
<p> The Tsar's abdication brought a Provisional Government to power (March 1917). The Provisional Government moved toward autonomy for Estonia within a democratic Russia.  The Bolshevick Revolution (October 1917) changed the situation.  Many Estonians objected to the Bolshevicks, both their policies and authoritarian tendencies.  Estonians began to shift from wanting autonomy to full independence. 
<br>
<h2>Independent Republic (1918-40)</h2>
<p> Most Estonians wanted a democtatic government, not a Bolshevick dictatorship.  Estonians declared independence (1918).  Estonian forces battle both the Germans and Bolshevicks.   Te country achieved independence after a war with the Bolshevicks (1918–1920).  Britain assisted militarily.  
A formal treaty was signed with the Bloshevicks (1920).  A democratic republic ruled the country.  The Government institutes a land reform program, breaking up large estates, mostly owned by Germans.  The land is distributed to Estonian peasant farmers.  President Konstantin Päts began authoriative rule (1934).  With the rise of the NAZIs in Germany, Estonians become increasingly concerned about the military threat, both from the Soviets and NAZI Germany.  
<br>
<h2><a href="/essay/war/ww2/cou/est/ww2-est.html">World War II</a> (1939-45)</h2>
<p>  Estonia became one of the three small independent Baltic republic along with Latvia and Lithuania. Hitler and Stalin divided Eastern Europe with the NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939). After the start of World War II, Stalin began to move against the Baltic republics.  He first demanded bases (1939).  Then after the fall of France removing any possible assistance, Stalin invaded all three countries and annexed them to the Soviet Union (1940). 
Large numbers of Estonians who opposed to Communism and Soviet intervention were arrested, executed, and deported. About 60,000 Estoniansd were involved.  The Soviets targeted the cream of society, the people most likely to resist Sovieization.  The Soviets were especially harsh in the NARVA region where Russian "colonists" to a substabntial degree ethnic Estonians. Estonia was occupied by the NAZIs in the opening phase of Operation Barbarossa (1941).  Most Estonian Jews have time to escape east.  The NAZIs quickly hunted down and killed those who remained.  NAZI plans for Estonia are not altogether clear.  They looked on the Balts differently than the Slavs.  It is likely, however, that if the Germans had won the War, that the Baltic republics would have been colonized with German settlers.  The resurgent Red Army drove the NAZIs out (1944).  Some Estonians flee west with the retreating Germans.  Estonians fought a guerilla war for independence after the War, but faced overwealming forces.
<br>
<h2>Soviet Era (1944-91)</h2>
<p> For four decadeds the Baltics languased within the Soviet Empire.  The United States and other Western countries did not recognize Soviet annexation of the Baltics, but this had little practical affect.  Stalin ordered more arrests and deportations (1949).  Many Russians move into the Baltics.  Khreschev's De-Stalinization Program end the Stalinist terror.   Conditions improve and the Baltics become the most prosperous region of the Soviet Union.  Some of the Balts who survived deportation areallowed to return.   The Soviet Stagnation Era begins under Premier Leonid Brezhnev (1970s).  Conditions in the Baltics are better than in much of the rest of the Soviet Union, but still a far cry from the West.  There are shortages and shoddy consumer goods and poor living conditions.  
Historians describe rule by "jowly, gray-faced men".   One historian writes that it was an era of "faceless bureaucrats playing an endless game of musical chairs,” moving from the directorship of one department or factory to another. [Lieven]  
<br>
<h2>Independence Movement (1987-91)</h2>
<p> For most of its history, Estonia has played a small role in European history.  Its history was determined by the great powers surrounding it.  This changed dramatically late in the the 20th century.  It was in Estonia that the first overt opposition within the previously monolithic Soviet Union appeard leading to the unraveling of the Soviet state.  Premier Gorbechev Glasnost policy resulted in the first public protests against Soviet rule (1987).  The Estonian Soviet legislature declared sovereignty (1988).  This began the process toward independence.  The Estonian independence movement became known as the "Singing Revolution" because its protests and rallies are peaceful and orderly, commonly  accompanied by singing.  The Soviet Estonian legislature declared a transition to independence (1990).  Sovietv authorities begin to crck down on the Baltics (1991).  The Estonian people show incredible courage, but the crackdown fails primarily because Gorbechev limits the use of force.  Hardliners in the Kremlin concerned about Gorbechev's preceived weakness attemp a coup (August 1991).  The coup unravels when Boris Yeltsin and the people of MMoscow resist.  One of the results was opening the path for independence in the Baltics and other Soviet republics.
<br>
<h2>Independent Republic (1992-  )</h2>
<p> Estonia joined NATO (March 2004).  Estonia joined the European Union (May 2004).  Today Estonia is both democratic and prosperous with a free enterprise economy.  A sharp contrast to the path that President Putin has chosen for Russia.
<br>
<h2>Sources</h2>
<p> Christiansen, Eric. <i>The Northern Crusades</i> (Second Edition).


<p> Lieven, Anatol.

<!

Pre-history

[edit] The Mesolithic Period
Tools made by Kunda Culture, the Estonian History Museum
Tools made by Kunda Culture, the Estonian History Museum

The region has been populated since the end of the last glacial era, about 10.000 B.C. The earliest traces of human settlement in Estonia are connected with Kunda Culture. The Early Mesolithic Pulli settlement is located by the Pärnu River. It has been dated to the beginning of the 9th millennium BC. The Kunda Culture received its name from the Lammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, which dates from earlier than 8500. [4] Bone and stone artifacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and southern Finland. Among minerals flint and quartz was used the most for making cutting tools.

[edit] The Neolithic Period

The beginning of the Neolithic period is marked by the ceramics of the Narva culture, appear in Estonia at the beginning of the 5th millennium. The oldest finds date from around 4900 B.C. The first pottery was made of thick clay mixed with pebbles, shells or plants. The Narva type ceramics are found throughout almost the entire Estonian coastal region and on the islands. The stone and bone tools of the era have a notable similarity with the artifacts of the Kunda culture.
Comb Ceramic pottery at the Estonian History Museum
Comb Ceramic pottery at the Estonian History Museum

Around the beginning of 4th millennium Comb Ceramic Culture arrived in Estonia. [5] Until the early 1980s the arrival of Finnic peoples, the ancestors of the Estonians, Finns, Livonians on the shores of Baltic sea around was associated with the Comb Ceramic Culture [6] However , such a linking of archaeologically defined cultural entities with linguistic ones cannot be proven and it has been suggested that the increase of settlement finds in the period is more likely to have been associated with an economic boom related to the warming of climate. Some researchers have even argued that a Uralic form of language may have been spoken in Estonia and Finland since the end of the last glaciation. [7]
Corded Ware culture pottery and stone axes, at the EHM
Corded Ware culture pottery and stone axes, at the EHM

The burial customs of the comb pottery people included additions of figures of animals, birds, snakes and men carved from bone and amber. Antiquities from comb pottery culture are found from Northern Finland to Eastern Prussia.

The beginning of the Late Neolithic Period about 2200 B.C. is characterized by the appearance of the Corded Ware culture, pottery with corded decoration and well-polished stone axes (s.c. boat-shape axes). Evidence of agriculture is provided by charred grain of wheat on the wall of a corded-ware vessel found in Iru settlement. Osteological analysis show an attempt was made to domesticate the wild boar. [8]

Specific burial customs were characterized the dead laid on their sides with their knees pressed against their breast, one hand under the head. Objects placed into the graves were mad of bones of domesticated animals.[5]

[edit] The Bronze Age
Stone Cist Graves from The Bronze Age in Northern Estonia
Stone Cist Graves from The Bronze Age in Northern Estonia

The beginning of the Bronze Age in Estonia is dated to approximately 1800 B.C. The development of the borders between the Finnic peoples and the Balts was under way. The first fortified settlements, Asva and Ridala on the island of Saaremaa and Iru in the Northern Estonia began to be built. The development of shipbuilding facilitated the spread of bronze. Changes took place in burial customs, a new type of burial ground spread from Germanic to Estonian areas, stone cist graves and cremation burials became increasingly common aside small number of boat-shaped stone graves. [9]

[edit] The Iron Age

The Pre-Roman Iron Age began in Estonia about 500 B.C. and lasted until the middle of the 1.st century A.D. The oldest iron items were imported, although since the first century iron was smelted from local marsh and lake ore. Settlement sites were located mostly in places that offered natural protection. Fortresses were built, although used temporarily. The appearance of square Celtic fields surrounded by enclosures in Estonia date from the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The majority of stones with man-made indents, which presumably were connected with magic designed to increase crop fertility, date from this period. A new type of grave, quadrangular burial mounds began to develop. Burial traditions show the clear beginning of social stratification.

The Roman Iron Age in Estonia is roughly dated to between 50 and 450 A.D., the era that was affected by the influence of the Roman Empire. In material culture this is reflected by few Roman coins, some jewellery and artefacts. The abundance of iron artefacts in Southern Estonia speaks of closer mainland ties with southern areas while the islands of western and northern Estonia communicated with their neighbors mainly by sea. By the end of the period three clearly defined tribal dialectical areas: Northern Estonia, Southern Estonia, and Western Estonia including the islands had emerged, the population of each having formed its own understanding of identity.[10]

[edit] Early Middle Ages
Europe in 9th century
Europe in 9th century

The name of Estonia occurs first in a form of Aestii in the first century AD by Tacitus, however, it might have indicated Baltic tribes living in the area. In Northern Sagas (9th century) the term started to be used to indicate the Estonians. [11]

In the first centuries AD political and administrative subdivisions began to emerge in Estonia. Two larger subdivisions appeared: the parish (kihelkond) and the county (maakond). The parish consisted of several villages. Nearly all parishes had at least one fortress. The defense of the local area was directed by the highest official, the parish elder. The county was composed of several parishes, also headed by an elder. By the 13th century the following major counties had developed in Estonia: Saaremaa (Osilia), Läänemaa (Rotalia or Maritima), Harjumaa (Harria), Rävala (Revalia), Virumaa (Vironia), Järvamaa (Jervia), Sakala (Saccala), and Ugandi (Ugaunia).[12]

Ptolemy in his Geography III in the middle of the 2nd century CE mentions the Osilians among other dwellers on the Baltic shore. [13]

According to the fifth-century Roman historian Cassiodorus the people known to Tacitius as the Aestii were the Estonians. The extent of their territory in early medieval times is disputed but the nature of their religion is not. They were known to the Scandinavians as experts in wind-magic, as were the Lapps (known at the time as Finns) in the North. [14]

The Chudes as mentioned by a monk Nestor in the earliest Russian chronicles, were the Ests or Esthonians [15]. According to Nestor in 1030 Yaroslav I the Wise invaded the country of the Chuds and laid the foundations of Yuriev, [16] (the historical Russian name of Tartu, Estonia). According to Old East Slavic chronicles the Chudes where one of the founders of the Rus' state. [15]






=======================================================










[edit] Swedish coastal settlements

The first written mention of the Estonian Swedes comes from 1294, in the laws of the town of Haapsalu. Estonian Swedes are one of the earliest known minorities in Estonia. They have also been called Coastal Swedes ("Rannarootslased" in Estonian), or according to their settlement area Ruhnu Swedes, Hiiu Swedes etc. They themselves used the poetic expression aibofolke — Island People.

The ancient areas of Swedish settlement in Estonia were Ruhnu Island, Hiiumaa Island, the west coast and smaller islands (Vormsi, Noarootsi, Sutlepa, Riguldi, Osmussaar), the north-west coast of the Harju District (Nõva, Vihterpalu, Kurkse, the Pakri Peninsula and the Pakri Islands) and Naissaar Island near Tallinn. The towns with a significant percentage of Swedish population have been Haapsalu and Tallinn.

In earlier times Swedes have also lived on the coasts of Saaremaa, the southern part of Läänemaa, the eastern part of Harjumaa and the western part of Virumaa.

[edit] Livonian Confederation

Estonia in Livonian Confederation from 1228 to the 1560s.


The territory was then divided between the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, the Bishopric of Dorpat (in Estonian: Tartu piiskopkond) and the Bishopric of Oesel-Wiek (in Estonian: Saare-Lääne piiskopkond). The Northern part of Estonia - more exactly Harjumaa and Virumaa districts (in German: Harrien und Wierland) - was a nominal possession of Denmark until 1346. Tallinn (Reval) was given the Lübeck Rights in 1248 and joined the Hanseatic League at the end of the 13th century. In 1343 the people of northern Estonia and Saaremaa (Oesel) Island started a rebellion (St. George's Night Uprising) against the rule of their German-speaking landlords. The uprising was put down, and Vesse, the rebel King of Saaremaa, was hanged in 1344.

Despite local rebellions and Muscovian invasions in 1481 and 1558, the local Low German-speaking upper class continued to rule Estonia and from 1524 preserved Estonian commitment to the Protestant Reformation.

[edit] The Reformation Period

The Reformation in Europe began in 1517 with Martin Luther (1483-1546) and his 95 Theses.

The Reformation resulted in great change in the Baltic. Ideas entered the Livonian Confederation very quickly and by the 1520’s they were well known. Language, education, religion, and politics were greatly transformed. The Church services were now given in the local vernacular, instead of Latin, as was previously used. [19]

[edit] Division of Estonia in Livonian War

    Main article: Livonian War

During the Livonian War in 1561, northern Estonia submitted to Swedish control, while southern Estonia briefly came under the control of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the 1580s. In 1625, mainland Estonia came entirely under Swedish rule. Estonia was administratively divided between the provinces of Estonia in the north and Livonia in southern Estonia and northern Latvia, a division which persisted until the early twentieth century.

[edit] Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

    Main article: Ducatus Ultradunensis

Outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Formation of the Swedish Empire, 1560-1660
Formation of the Swedish Empire, 1560-1660

during 1582–83 southern Estonia (Livonia) became part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

[edit] Estonia in Swedish Empire

    Main article: Swedish Estonia

Estonia placed itself under Swedish rule in 1561 to receive protection against Russia and Poland as the Livonian Order lost their foothold in the Baltic provinces. Territorially it represented the northern part of present day Estonia.

Livonia was conquered from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1629 in the Polish-Swedish War. By the Treaty of Oliva between the Commonwealth and Sweden in 1660 following the Northern Wars the Polish-Lithuanian king renounced all claims to the Swedish throne and Livonia was formally ceded to Sweden. Swedish Livonia represents the southern part of present-day Estonia and the northern part of present-day Latvia (Vidzeme region)

In 1631, Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden forced the nobility to grant the peasantry greater autonomy, and in 1632 established a printing press and University in the city of Tartu.

[edit] Estonia in Russian Empire
Europa in 19th century
Europa in 19th century

Sweden's defeat by Russia in the Great Northern War in 1721 resulted in the Treaty of Nystad, and Russian rule was then imposed on what later became modern Estonia. Nonetheless, the legal system, Lutheran church, local and town governments, and education remained mostly German until the late 19th century and partially until 1918.

By 1819, the Baltic provinces were the first in the Russian empire in which serfdom was abolished, the largely autonomous nobility allowing the peasants to own their own land or move to the cities. These moves created the economic foundation for the coming to life of the local national identity and culture as Estonia was caught in a current of national awakening that began sweeping through Europe in the mid-1800s.

[edit] Age of Enlightenment

    Main article: Estophilia

Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750-1840)
Educated German immigrants and local Baltic Germans in Estonia, educated at German universities introduced Enlightenment ideas of rational thinking, ideas that propagated freedom of thinking and brotherhood and equality. The French Revolution provided a powerful motive for the enlightened local upper class to create literature for the peasantry. [20] The freeing of the peasantry from serfdom on the nobles estates in 1816 in Southern Estonia:Governorate of Livonia (Russian: Лифляндская губерния) and 1819 in Northern Estonia: Governorate of Estonia (Russian: Эстляндская губерния) by Alexander I of Russia gave rise to a debate as to the future fate of the former enslaved peoples. Although Baltic Germans at large regarded the future of Estonians as being a fusion with the Baltic Germans, the Estophile educated class admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13 century. [21] The Estophile Enlightenment Period formed the transition from religious Estonian literature to newspapers written in Estonian for the mass public.

[edit] National Awakening

    Main article: Estonian Age of Awakening

A cultural movement sprang forth to adopt the use of Estonian as the language of instruction in schools, all-Estonian song festivals were held regularly after 1869, and a national literature in Estonian developed. "Kalevipoeg", Estonia's national epic, was published in 1861 in both Estonian and German.

1889 marked the beginning of the central government-sponsored policy of Russification. The impact of this was that many of the Baltic German legal institutions were either abolished or had to do their work in Russian - a good example of this is the University of Tartu.

As the Russian Revolution of 1905 swept through Estonia, the Estonians called for freedom of the press and assembly, for universal franchise, and for national autonomy. Estonian gains were minimal, but the tense stability that prevailed between 1905 and 1917 allowed Estonians to advance the aspiration of national statehood.

[edit] Road to Republic

    Main article: Autonomous Governorate of Estonia

Estonia as a unified political entity first emerged after the Russian Revolution of 1917. With the collapse of the Russian Empire in World War I, Russia's Provisional Government granted national autonomy to an unified Estonia in April. The Governorate of Estonia in the north (corresponding to the historic Danish Estonia) was united with the northern part of the Governorate of Livonia. Elections for a provisional parliament, Maapäev was organized, with the Menshevik and Bolshevik fractions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party obtaining a part of the vote. On November 5, 1917, two days before the October Revolution in Saint Petersburg, Estonian Bolshevik leader Jaan Anvelt violently usurped power from the legally constituted Maapäev in a coup d'etat, forcing the Maapäev underground.

In February, after the collapse of the peace talks between Soviet Russia and the German Empire, mainland Estonia was occupied by the Germans. Bolshevik forces retreated to Russia. Between the Russian Red Army's retreat and the arrival of advancing German troops, the Salvation Committee of the Estonian National Council Maapäev declared Estonian independence.[22] in Parnu on February 24, 1918 After the collapse of the short-lived puppet government of the United Baltic Duchy and the withdrawal of German troops in November 1918, an Estonian provisional Government retook office. A military invasion by Red Army followed a few days later, however, marking the beginning of the Estonian War of Independence (1918-1920). The Estonian army cleared the entire territory of Estonia of Red Army by February 1919. On February 2, 1920, the Treaty of Tartu was signed by the Republic of Estonia and Russian SFSR. The terms of the treaty stated that Russia renounced in perpetuity all rights to the territory of Estonia. The Republic of Estonia obtained international recognition and became a member of the League of Nations in 1921.

[edit] Republic of Estonia

The first period of independence lasted 22 years, beginning in 1918. Estonia underwent a number of economic, social, and political reforms necessary to come to terms with its new status as a sovereign state. Economically and socially, land reform in 1919 was the most important step. Large estate holdings belonging to the Baltic nobility were redistributed among the peasants and especially among volunteers in the Estonian War of Independence. Estonia's principal markets became Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, and western Europe, with some exports to the United States and to the Soviet Union.

The first constitution of the Republic of Estonia, adopted in 1920, established a parliamentary form of government. The parliament (Riigikogu) consisted of 100 members elected for 3-year terms. Between 1921 and 1931, Estonia had 11 governments.

A mass anticommunist and antiparliamentary Vaps Movement emerged in the 1930s[23] In October 1933 referendum on constitutional reform initiated by the Vaps Movement was approved by 72.7 percent.[23] The league spearheaded replacement of the parliamentary system with a presidential form of government and laid the groundwork for an April 1934 presidential election, which it expected to win. However, the Vaps Movement was thwarted by a pre-emptive coup d'état on March 12, 1934, by Head of State Konstantin Päts, who then established his own authoritarian rule until new constitution came to force. Political parties were banned and the parliament was not in session between 1934 and 1938 as the country was ruled by decree by Konstantin Päts. The Vaps Movement was officially banned and finally disbanded in December 1935. On May 6 1936, 150 members of the league went on trial and 143 of them were convicted to long-term prison sentences. They were granted an amnesty and freed in 1938, by which time the league had lost most of its popular support.

The independence period was one of great cultural advancement. Estonian language schools were established, and artistic life of all kinds flourished. One of the more notable cultural acts of the independence period, unique in western Europe at the time of its passage in 1925, was a guarantee of cultural autonomy to minority groups comprising at least 3,000 persons, including Jews (see history of the Jews in Estonia). Historians see the lack of any bloodshed after a nearly "700-year German rule" as indication that it must have been mild by comparison.

Estonia had pursued a policy of neutrality, but it was of no consequence after the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on August 23, 1939 in which the two great powers agreed to divide up the countries situated between them (Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland) with Estonia falling in the Soviet "sphere of influence". After the invasion of Poland, Orzeł incident took place when Polish submarine ORP Orzeł looked for shelter in Tallinn but escaped after Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17. Estonian's lack of will and/or incapability to disarm and intern the crew caused Soviet Union to accuse Estonia of "helping them escape" and claim that Estonia was not neutral. On September 24, 1939, the Soviet Union threatened Estonia with war unless provided with military bases in the country –- an ultimatum with which the Estonian government complied.

[edit] Estonia in World War II

    Main article: Estonia in World War II

[edit] Soviet Occupation

The Republic of Estonia was occupied by the Soviet Union in June 1940 [24], [25] [26]

On September 24, 1939, warships of the Red Navy appeared off Estonian ports and Soviet bombers began a threatening patrol over Tallinn and the nearby countryside.[27]Moscow demanded Estonia to gave assent to an agreement which allowed the USSR to establish military bases and station 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for the duration of the European war. [28] The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum signing the corresponding agreement on September 28. 1939.

On June 12, 1940 the order for a total military blockade on Estonia to the Soviet Baltic Fleet was given. [29] [30]

On June 14, 1940 while world’s attention is focused on the fall of Paris to Nazi Germany a day earlier, the Soviet military blockade of Estonia went into effect, two Soviet bombers downed Finnish passenger airplane "Kaleva" flying from Tallinn to Helsinki carrying three diplomatic pouches from the U.S. legations in Tallinn, Riga and Helsinki. The US Foreign Service employee Henry W. Antheil, Jr. was killed in the crash. [31]

On June 16 1940, the Soviet Union invaded Estonia. [32] Molotov accused the Baltic states of conspiracy against the Soviet Union and delivered an ultimatum to Estonia for the establishment of a government the Soviets approve of.

The Estonian government decided: given the overwhelming Soviet force both on the borders and inside the country, not to resist, to avoid bloodshed and open war. [33] Estonia accepted the ultimatum and the statehood of Estonia de facto ceased to exist as the Red Army exited from their military bases in Estonia on June 17. The following day, some 90,000 additional troops entered the country. The military occupation of the Republic of Estonia was rendered "official" by communist coup d'état supported by the Soviet troops. [34] followed by "parliamentary elections" where all but pro-Communist candidates were outlawed. The "parliament" so elected proclaimed Estonia a Socialist Republic on July 21, 1940 and unanimously requested Estonia to be "accepted" into the Soviet Union. Those who had fallen short of the "political duty" of voting Estonia into the USSR, who had failed to have their passports stamped for so voting were allowed to be shot in the back of the head by Soviet tribunals. [35] Estonia was formally annexed into the Soviet Union on August 6 and renamed the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic.[36] The 1940 occupation and annexation of Estonia into the Soviet Union was considered illegal and never officially recognized by Great Britain, the United States and other Western democracies[37].

The Soviet authorities, having gained control over Estonia, immediately imposed a regime of terror. During the first year of Soviet occupation (1940-1941) over 8,000 people, including most of the country's leading politicians and military officers, were arrested. About 2,200 of the arrested were executed in Estonia, while most others were moved to prison camps in Russia, from where very few were later able to return alive. On June 14, 1941, when mass deportations took place simultaneously in all three Baltic countries, about 10,000 Estonian civilians were deported to Siberia and other remote areas of the Soviet Union, where nearly half of them later perished. Of the 32,100 Estonian men who were forcibly relocated to Russia under the pretext of mobilisation into the Soviet army after the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, nearly 40 percent died within the next year in the so-called "labour battalions" through hunger, cold and overworking. During the first Soviet occupation of 1940-41 about 500 Jews were deported to Siberia Estonian graveyards and monuments were destroyed. Among others, the Tallinn Military Cemetery had the majority of gravestones from 1918–1944 destroyed by the Soviet authorities, and this graveyard became reused by the Red Army.[38] Other cemeteries destroyed by the authorities during the Soviet era in Estonia include Baltic German cemeteries established in 1774 Kopli cemetery, Mõigu cemetery and the oldest cemetery in Tallinn, from 16th century, Kalamaja cemetery.

    See also Soviet deportations from Estonia

Many countries including the United States did not recognize the seizure of Estonia by the USSR. Such countries recognized Estonian diplomats and consuls who still functioned in many countries in the name of their former governments. These aging diplomats persisted in this anomalous situation until the ultimate restoration of Baltic independence.[39]

[edit] German Occupation

    Main article: Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany

After Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, and the Wehrmacht reached Estonia in July 1941, most Estonians greeted the Germans with relatively open arms and hoped to restore independence. But it soon became clear that sovereignty was out of the question. Estonia became a part of the German-occupied "Ostland". A Sicherheitspolizei was established for internal security under the leadership of Ain-Ervin Mere. The initial enthusiasm that accompanied the liberation from Soviet occupation quickly waned as a result and the Germans had limited success in recruiting volunteers. The draft was introduced in 1942, resulting in some 3400 men fleeing to Finland to fight in the Finnish Army rather than join the Germans. Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 AKA (Estonian: soomepoisid) was formed out of Estonian volunteers in Finland. With the Allied victory over Germany becoming certain in 1944, the only option to save Estonia's independence was to stave off a new Soviet invasion of Estonia until Germany's capitulation.

By January 1944, the front was pushed back by the Soviet Army almost all the way to the former Estonian border. Narva was evacuated. Jüri Uluots, the last legitimate prime minister of the Republic of Estonia (according to the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia) prior to its fall to the Soviet Union in 1940, delivered a radio address that implored all able-bodied men born from 1904 through 1923 to report for military service (Before this, Uluots had opposed Estonian mobilization.) The call drew support from all across the country: 38.000 volunteers jammed registration centers. [40] Several thousand Estonians who had joined the Finnish army came back across the Gulf of Finland to join the newly formed Territorial Defense Force, assigned to defend Estonia against the Soviet advance. It was hoped that by engaging in such a war Estonia would be able to attract Western support for the cause of Estonia's independence from the USSR and thus ultimately succeed in achieving independence. [41] The initial formation of the volunteer SS Estonian legion created in 1942 was eventually expanded to become a full-sized conscript division of the Waffen SS in 1944, the 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Estonian). The Estonian units saw action defending the Narva line throughout 1944.

As the Germans retreated in September 1944, Jüri Uluots, the last Prime Minister of the Estonian Republic prior to Soviet occupation, assumed the responsibilities of president (as dictated in the Constitution) and appointed a new government while seeking recognition from the Allies. The new government fled to Stockholm, Sweden and operated in exile until 1992, when Heinrich Mark, the prime minister of the Estonian government in exile acting as president, presented his credentials to incoming president Lennart Meri.

[edit] The holocaust

Historical background

    Main article: History of the Jews in Estonia

The process of Jewish settlement in Estonia began in the nineteenth century, when in 1865 the Russian Tsar Alexander II granted them the right to enter the region. The creation of the Republic of Estonia in 1918 marked the beginning of a new era for the Jews. Approximately 200 Jews fought in combat for the creation of the Republic of Estonia and 70 of these men were volunteers. From the very first days of her existence as a state, Estonia showed her tolerance towards all the peoples inhabiting her territories. On 12 February 1925 The Estonian government passed a law pertaining to the cultural autonomy of minority peoples. The Jewish community quickly prepared its application for cultural autonomy. Statistics on Jewish citizens were compiled. They totaled 3,045, fulfilling the minimum requirement of 3000. In June 1926 the Jewish Cultural Council was elected and Jewish cultural autonomy was declared. Jewish cultural autonomy was of great interest to global Jewish community. The Jewish National Endowment presented the Government of the Republic of Estonia with a certificate of gratitude for this achievement.[42]

There were, at the time of Soviet occupation in 1940, approximately 2000 Estonian Jews. Many of Jewish people were deported to Siberia along with other Estonians by the Soviets. It is estimated that 500 Jews suffered this fate. With the invasion of the Baltics, it was the intention of the Nazi government to use the Baltics countries as their main area of mass genocide. Consequently, Jews from countries outside the Baltics were shipped there to be exterminated. Out the approximately 4,300 Jews in Estonia prior to the war, between 1,500 and 2,000 were entrapped by the Nazis. [43] and an estimated 10,000 Jews were killed in Estonia after having been deported to camps there from elsewhere in Eastern Europe. [44] There have been knowingly 7 ethnic Estonians: Ralf Gerrets, Ain-Ervin Mere, Jaan Viik, Juhan Jüriste, Karl Linnas,Aleksander Laak and Ervin Viks that have faced trials for crimes against humanity. Since the reestablishment of the Estonian independence Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity has been established. [45] Markers were put in place for the 60th anniversary of the mass executions that were carried out at the Lagedi, Vaivara [46] and Klooga (Kalevi-Liiva) camps in September of 1944.[47]

[edit] Fate of other minorites in and after world war II

The Baltic Germans had mainly been evacuated to Germany following the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact.

Almost all the remaing Estonian Swedes fled in August 1944, often in their small boats to the Swedish island of Gotland.

The Russian minority grew significantly in numbers durong the postwar era.

[edit] After World War II
border changes of Estonia after World War II
border changes of Estonia after World War II

    Main article: Estonian SSR

In World War II Estonia had suffered huge losses. Ports had been destroyed, and 45% of industry and 40% of the railways had become damaged. Estonia's population had decreased by one-fifth, about 200,000 people. Some 10% of the population (over 80,000 people) had fled to the West between 1940 and 1944. More than 30,000 soldiers had been killed in action. In 1944 Russian air raids had destroyed Narva and one-third of the residential area in Tallinn. By the late autumn of 1944, Soviet forces had ushered in a second phase of Soviet rule in heels of German troops withdrawing from Estonia, and followed it up by a new wave of arrests and executions of people considered disloyal to the Soviets.

An anti-Soviet guerrilla movement known as the "Metsavennad" ("Forest Brothers") developed in the countryside, reaching its zenith in 1946-48. It is hard to tell how many people were in the ranks of the Metsavennad, however it is estimated on different times there could be about 30,000–35,000 people. Probably the last Forest Brother was caught in the September of 1978, and killed himself during his apprehension.

In March 1949, 20,722 people (2.5% of the population) were deported to Siberia. By the beginning of the 1950s, the occupying regime had suppressed the resistance movement.

After the war the Communist Party of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ECP) became the pre-eminent organization in the republic. The ethnic Estonian share in the total ECP membership decreased from 90% in 1941 to 48% in 1952.
Flag of the Estonian SSR
Flag of the Estonian SSR

After Stalin's death, Party membership vastly expanded its social base to include more ethnic Estonians. By the mid-1960s, the percentage of ethnic Estonian membership stabilized near 50%. On the eve of perestroika the ECP claimed about 100,000 members; less than half were ethnic Estonians and they totalled less than 2% of the country's population.

One positive aspect of the post-Stalin era in Estonia was the re-permission in the late 1950s of citizens' contacts with foreign countries. Ties were reactivated with Finland, and in the 1960s, a ferry connection was opened from Tallinn to Helsinki and Estonians began watching Finnish television. This electronic "window on the West" afforded Estonians more information on current affairs and more access to Western culture and thought than any other group in the Soviet Union. This heightened media environment was important in preparing Estonians for their vanguard role in extending perestroika during the Gorbachev era.

In the late 1970s, Estonian society grew increasingly concerned about the threat of cultural Russification to the Estonian language and national identity. By 1981, Russian was taught in the first grade of Estonian language schools and was also introduced into the Estonian pre-school teaching.

By the beginning of the Gorbachev era, concern over the cultural survival of the Estonian people had reached a critical point. The ECP remained stable in the early perestroika years but waned in the late 1980s. Other political movements, groupings, and parties moved to fill the power vacuum. The first and most important was the Estonian Popular Front, established in April 1988 with its own platform, leadership, and broad constituency. The Greens and the dissident-led Estonian National Independence Party soon followed. By 1989, the political spectrum widened, and new parties were formed and re-formed almost daily.

The republic's Supreme Soviet transformed into an authentic regional lawmaking body. This relatively conservative legislature passed an early declaration of sovereignty (November 16, 1988); a law on economic independence (May 1989) confirmed by the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet that November; a language law making Estonian the official language (January 1989); and local and republic election laws stipulating residency requirements for voting and candidacy (August, November 1989).

Although the majority of Estonia's large Russian-speaking diaspora of Soviet-era immigrants did not support full independence, they were divided in their goals for the republic. In March 1990 some 18% of Russian speakers supported the idea of a fully independent Estonia, up from 7% the previous autumn, and by early 1990 only a small minority of ethnic Estonians were opposed to full independence.

[edit] Regaining independence

Despite the emergence of the Popular Front and the Supreme Soviet as a new lawmaking body, since 1989 the different segments of the indigenous Estonian population had been politically mobilized by different and competing actors. The Popular Front's proposal, to declare the independence of Estonia as a new, so-called "third republic" whose citizens would be all those living there at the moment found less and less support over time.

A grassroots Estonian Citizens' Committees Movement launched in 1989 with the objective of registering all pre-war citizens of the Republic of Estonia and their descendants in order to convene a Congress of Estonia. Their emphasis was on the illegal nature of the Soviet system and that hundreds of thousands inhabitants of Estonia had not ceased to be citizens of Estonian Republic which still existed de jure, recognized by the majority of Western nations. Despite the hostility of the mainstream official press and intimidation by Soviet Estonian authorities, dozens of local citizens' committees were elected by popular initiative all over the country. These quickly organized into a nation-wide structure and by the beginning of 1990, over 900,000 people had registered themselves as citizens of the Republic of Estonia.

The spring of 1990 saw two free elections and two alternative legislatures developed in Estonia. On 24 February 1990, the 464-member Congress of Estonia (including 35 delegates of refugee communities abroad) was elected by the registered citizens of the republic. The Congress of Estonia convened for the first time in Tallinn March 11–12, 1990, passing 14 declarations and resolutions. A 70-member standing committee (Eesti Komitee) was elected with Tunne Kelam as its chairman.

In the March 18, 1990 elections for the 105-member Supreme Soviet all residents of Estonia were eligible to participate, including all Soviet-era immigrants from the U.S.S.R. and approximately 50,000 Soviet troops stationed there. The Popular Front coalition, composed of left and centrist parties and led by former Central Planning Committee official Edgar Savisaar, gained a parliamentary majority. In May 8, 1990, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Estonia (created previous day) restored the Republic of Estonia.

In March 1991 a referendum was held on the issue of independence. This was somewhat controversial, as holding a referendum could be taken as signalling that Estonian independence would be established rather than "re"-established. There was some discussion about whether it was appropriate to allow the Russian immigrant minority to vote, or if this decision should be reserved exclusively for citizens of Estonia. In the end all major political parties backed the referendum, considering it most important to send a strong signal to the world. To further legitimise the vote, all residents of Estonia were allowed to participate. The result vindicated these decisions, as the referendum produced a strong endorsement for independence. Turnout was 82%, and 64% of all possible voters in the country backed independence, with only 17% against.

Through a strict, non-confrontational policy in pursuing independence, Estonia managed to avoid the violence which Latvia and Lithuania incurred in the bloody January 1991 crackdowns and in the border customs-post guard murders that summer. During the August coup in the U.S.S.R., Estonia was able to maintain constant operation and control of its telecommunications facilities, thereby offering the West a clear view into the latest coup developments and serving as a conduit for swift Western support and recognition of Estonia's "confirmation" of independence on August 20, 1991. August 20 remains a national holiday in Estonia because of this. Following Europe's lead, the United States formally reestablished diplomatic relations with Estonia on September 2, and the U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet offered recognition on September 6.

Since the debates of whether the future independent Estonia would be established as a new republic or a continuation of the first republic were not yet complete by the time of the August coup, but the members of the Supreme Soviet generally agreed that the independence should be declared rapidly, a compromise was hatched between the two main sides: instead of "declaring" independence, which would imply a new start, or explicitly asserting continuity, the declaration would "confirm" Estonia as a state independent of the Soviet Union, and willing to reestablish diplomatic relations on its own accord. The full text of the statement is available at [2].

After more than 3 years of negotiations, on August 31, 1994, the armed forces of Russia withdrew from Estonia. Since fully regaining independence Estonia has had 12 governments with 8 prime ministers: Mart Laar, Andres Tarand, Tiit Vähi, Mart Siimann, Siim Kallas, Juhan Parts, and Andrus Ansip. The PMs of the interim government (1990–1992) were Edgar Savisaar and Tiit Vähi.

Since the last Russian troops left in 1994, Estonia has been free to promote economic and political ties with Western Europe. Estonia opened accession negotiations with the European Union in 1998 and joined in 2004, shortly after becoming a member of NATO.

[edit] Time line

[edit] Prehistory

    * 98 Roman historian Tacitus wrote in the book Germania about aesti tribes, but it is not clear if he was talking about the linguistic ancestors of modern Estonians.
    * 6th century: The Guta Saga tells how vikings from Gotland sailed to Dagaithi island (Hiiumaa, Dagö) and built a fortification there.
    * 600 King Ingvar of Sweden invaded Estonia and was killed at the place called Stein and was buried in region of Adalsysla. Although, his son Anund would have a reputation for being peaceful, the news of his father's death at the hands of the Estonians briefly changed his character. Snorri Sturluson wrote: King Onund went with his army to Estland to avenge his father, and landed and ravaged the country round far and wide...' [3]
    * 862 Warring tribes of Chuds (Finnic tribes related to, or including, Estonians) and Slavs invited vikings leaders Rurik, Sineus and Truvor to rule them, which was the foundation of county of Rus. Truvor chose his residence to be Izborsk near what is now Estonian border with Russia.
    * 967 According a legend, Olav Tryggvason, the future king of Norway was captured by Estonian pirates, sold as a slave and later freed with the help of tax gatherers from Novgorod.
    * 972 A battle between Estonian and Icelandic vikings in Saaremaa described in Njál's saga.
    * 1008 Olav Haraldsson, the future king of Norway landed on Saaremaa island, won a battle there and forced the inhabitants to pay tribute.
    * 1030 Prince Yaroslav the Wise of Kiev won a battle against Estonians (Chuds) and established a stronghold in Yuryev (now Tartu), dedicated to his patron saint, St. George (Yuri).
    * 1060 Prince Iziaslav Yaroslavich of Kiev imposed a heavy tribute on sosol tribe of Chuds (either Saaremaa islanders, Sackalians or Setus).
    * 1061 Estonians of sosol tribe destroyed the castle of Yuryev and carried out raids in the Pskov region.
    * 1075 Chronicle Adam of Bremen mentions island of Aestland in northern Baltic Sea, whose inhabitants worship dragons and birds and make human sacrifices.
    * 1113 Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich of Kiev, defeated Chuds in a place called Boru (maybe Izborsk).
    * 1116 Mstislav Vladimirovich together with troops from Pskov and Novgorod made a raid against Chuds and conquered castle named Medvezh'ya Golova (now Otepää) in Southern Estonia.
    * 1132 Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich of Novgorod was defeated by Estonians of Vaiga province.
    * 1134 Prince Vsevolod fought against Chuds and won the fortification of Yuryev (Tartu).
    * 1154 – Arab geographer Al Idrisi mentioned country of Estonia Astlanda and places that might be Tallinn ((q/t)lwny), Pärnu (brn), Hiiumaa (dgwd) and unidentified locations anhw and flmwse.
    * 1165 A Benedictine Fulco from Moutier La Celle convent was named the Bishop of Estonians by the Archbishop of Lund.
    * 1170 Danish king Valdemar I fought with Couronian and Estonian pirates near Öland island.
    * 1171 Bishop Fulco and his deputy Nicolaus (ethnic Estonian convert from Stavanger convent, Norway) made a missionary journey to Estonia.
    * 1177 Estonians attacked Pskov during winter.
    * 1187 Pagan pirates, probably Estonians and Karelians, ravaged the Mälaren area in Sweden, burned down city of Sigtuna, and killed the archbishop.
    * 1191 A cistercian monk Theoderich, future Bishop of Estonia made an unsuccessful missionary journey to Estonia.
    * 1192 Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich of Novgorod made two raids against Estonians, burning down Tartu and Otepää castles.
    * 1203 Estonian Saaremaa (Ösel) islanders ravage areas of Southern Sweden then belonging to Denmark. Later the returning pirates had skirmish with German settlers of Riga near the town of Visby in Gotland.

[edit] Livonian period

    * 1208 Crusaders from Riga allied with Letts and Livs started a war against Sackalia and Ugaunia provinces in Southern Estonia.
    * 1217 German crusaders, Letts and Livs won a battle against Estonians and killed their leader Lembitu of Lehola, elder of Sackalia province.
    * 1219 Denmark conquered the province of Revelia in Northern Estonia and built castle of Reval (Castrum Danorum)
    * 1220 Swedes led by king John I tried to establish themselves in province of Wiek but were decimated by Saaremaa islanders.
    * 1224 The Livonian Order conquered the stronghold of Tartu from Ugaunian and Russian troops
    * 1227 The last pagan stronghold in Island of Ösel was conquered by crusaders
    * 1242 Army of Livonian knights and Estonians was defeated in the Battle on Lake Peipus by an army from Novgorod commanded by Alexander Nevsky
    * Around 1285, Reval (Tallinn) became a member of the Hanseatic League
    * 1343 Estonians in Harria, Ösel and Wiek rose up against German rulers (St.George's Night Uprising)
    * 1346 The Northern Estonia (Harria and Vironia) was sold by Waldemar IV of Denmark to the Livonian Order.
    * 1419 The Livonian diet was formed.
    * 1558 Tartu surrendered to Russian troops in Livonian War
    * 1560 Ivan the Terrible decimated the Livonian Order in the Battle of Ergeme.
    * 1561 Wilno Pact

[edit] Swedish period

    * 1561 The city council of Reval surrendered to Sweden.
    * 1575 Russians occupied Pärnu (Pernau) in Western Estonia and the fortress of Weissenstein (Paide).
    * 1581 a mercenary army of Sweden under Pontus de la Gardie captured Narva from Russia.
    * 1582 by the armistice of Jam Zapolski, Dorpat together with Southern Estonia was into the state of Poland-Lithuania.
    * 1625 Swedish commander Jacob de la Gardie took Dorpat (Tartu) and Southern Estonia from Poland
    * 1645 Saaremaa (Ösel) island was ceded from Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Brömsebro.
    * 1632 - foundation of the University of Tartu under Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus.
    * November 10, 1700 - Battle at Narva, where the Swedish army under king Charles XII defeats the Russian army.

[edit] Russian period

    * 1704 Russian troops under czar Peter the Great captured Dorpat (Tartu) in the Great Northern War.
    * 1708 Fearful of Swedish attack, Russians blew up the city of Dorpat (Tartu).
    * 1710 Whole Estonia was included in Russian empire
    * 1721 Estonia was formally ceded by Sweden to Russia by the Treaty of Nystad.

[edit] Independent Estonia

    * 24 February 1918 Estonian Declaration of Independence
    * 3 March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Bolshevist Russia cedes sovereignty over Estonia to Germany
    * 11 November 1918 Germans begin withdrawal and turn over power to the provisional government of Estonia (headed by Konstantin Päts)
    * 1918-1920 Estonian War of Independence
    * 22 November 1918 Estonia is invaded by Bolshevist Russian forces
    * Jan 1919 Bolsheviks were driven out
    * 10 October 1919 Agrarian Law passed redistributing many of estates owned by Baltic Germans
    * 2 February 1920 Treaty of Tartu which gave Estonia recognition by Soviet Russia
    * June 15, 1920 Adoption of Constitution
    * Sept 1922 Estonia joins League of Nations
    * 14 October-16 1933 plebiscite in favour of constitutional reform giving wide powers to a new office of the president
    * 24 January 1934 New constitution in effect and immediate attempt at a coup by the League of Liberators
    * March 12, 1934 In the aftermath of the coup attempt, Konstantin Päts with the help of General Johan Laidoner set up a virtual dictatorship. Parliament was prorogued and political parties were banned. Many members of the Liberators were arrested.
    * Dec 1935 another coup attempt by the Liberators
    * 23 February-25 a second plebiscite on the constitution of 1934 and the vote was 3-1 in favour of getting rid of the 1934 constitution
    * July 29, 1937 a new constitution in force with civil liberties and democracy restored but with a very strong presidency
    * 24 February 1938 election sees National Front winning 63 seats and all the opposition winning 17 seats
    * 24 April 1938 Konstantin Päts elected president

[edit] See also

    * List of Estonian rulers
    * President of Estonia
    * Prime Minister of Estonia
    * Riigihoidja
    * Northern Crusades
    * Conquest of Estonia
    * Ugaunians
    * Vironians
    * Livonian Order
    * Bishopric of Dorpat
    * Hanseatic League
    * Soviet Union
    * Estonian SSR
    * Collapse of the Soviet Union
    * History of Europe
    * History of the European Union
    * History of present-day nations and states
    * History of Denmark
    * History of Germany
    * History of Russia
    * History of Sweden
    * Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany

[edit] References

   1. ^ U.S.-Baltic Relations: Celebrating 85 Years of Friendship at state.gov
   2. ^ Motion for a resolution on the Situation in Estonia by EU
   3. ^ European Court of Human Rights cases on Occupation of Baltic States
   4. ^ Estonia: Identity and Independence, p.24 ISBN 9042008903
   5. ^ a b of Estonia ISBN 9985206061
   6. ^ Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States, p153 ISBN 0313306109
   7. ^ The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, p.51 ISBN 0521472997
   8. ^ Estonia: Identity and Independence, p.29 ISBN 9042008903
   9. ^ Estonia: Identity and Independence, p.26 ISBN 9042008903
  10. ^ Estonia: Identity and Independence, p.28-31 ISBN 9042008903
  11. ^ The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics., p21-23 ISBN 0631231706
  12. ^ Estonia and the Estonians (Studies of Nationalities) Toivo U. Raun p.11 ISBN 0817928529
  13. ^ A History of Pagan Europe By Prudence Jones, Nigel Pennick; p.195 ISBN 0415091365
  14. ^ A History of Pagan Europe. p179 ISBN 0415091365
  15. ^ a b Pre- and Proto-historic Finns by John Abercromby p.141
  16. ^ Pre- and Proto-historic Finns by John Abercromby p.142
  17. ^ The Northern Crusades: Second Edition by Er