Figure 1.--
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Figure 1.-- |
The Medieval era can be said to have begun with the recall of the Roman Legions from Britain (409). With the withdrawl of the legions, the Picts intensified y their raids south. It is at this time that waves of migrating German tribes, the Saxons, sweep over Britain. Many Celtic Britons retreating from the Saxon invasions settle in Caledonia between the Firth of Clyde and the Solway Firth which eventually collaseses in to the Kingdom of Strathclyde. To the north at the beginning of the 6th century, Celtic invaders from Ireland establish the Kingdom of Dalriada. The pagan Angles, another invading Germanic tribe settled in what is now northern England founding the kingdom of Northumbria. The Angles in the mid-6th century moved north seizing much of the land south of the Firth of Fourth and east of Strathclyde. Strathclyde and some Picts were converted to Christianity and Columba came to Dalriada froim Ireland (563). He largely converted the remaing Picts. Conflicts develop between the Celts and Picts who fuse into the Scotts on one suide and the Angles in Northumbria. Keneth MacAlpine in the mid-9th century rules over all of Scotland, but faces incessent warfare with the Norse. The conflict between the Scotts and English continues when the the Normon William the Conqueror defeats the Saxons at hastings (1066). Malcomb's son, Edgar, with Norman assistance is crowned (1097). The Anglization of Scotland accelerated during Edgar's reign (1097-1107) and that of his two brothers, Alexander I (1107-24) and David I (1124-53). Edward I also succeeds in annexing Scotland to England, but is thwarted first by William Wallace anf finally by Robert the Bruce. The feuding Scottish nobility, however, prevents the establishment of a strong royal Government. After Robert there is a decline of royal authority and further English encroachments. The Stuart dynasty was founded by Robert II. The Stuarts were unable to overcome the Scottish nobility and impose strng royal authority in Scotland. As a result, Scotland under the Stuarts were unable to resist English encroachments. While the Reformnation was initaited by the English monarchy, in Scotland in occurred in spite of the opposition of the monarchy, although supported by the English. Ironically, although Queen Elizabeth executed her Catholic rival Mary Queen of Scotts, her Protestant son James V of Scotland succeeded her as King James I of England, launching the English Stuart dynasty.
Scotland in antiquity was known by the Romans as Caledoinia. Little is known of the early inhabitants of Scotland. Human habitation of cotland appears to date from about 8500 BC. The appear to have been a mixed group of aborigines and unidentified European tribes of the Indo-Euroipean lingistic stock. Some archeologists believe that Scotland was settled by Iberians. The one group which is know is the Picts, a war-like people who were able to resist the Roman invasion. The term Pict is Roman in origin. The Romans called the pre-Celtic people in northern Britain "Pictii", meaning painted people. This appears to have referred the Pict pratice of tatooing their bodies. Roman General Gnaeus Julius Agricola invaded Caledonia in the late 1st century AD and reached the Firth of Forth. The Picts and rebelious Britons pushed north by the Romans appeared to have successfully resisted the Romans in the area between the Firth of Fourth and the Clyde. Resistance was so successful that the Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of a defensive wall from Solvay Firth to the mouth of the River Tyne which is today known as Hadrian's Wall (122 AD). Another wall was subsequently constructed further north which became known as the Wall of Pius (140s). This wall extended from the Firth of Fourth to the Firth of Clyde. The area between the two walls became the Roman first line of defense against the ancient Caledonians. The area south of the Wall of Pius became partially Romanized and this endured into Medieval and modern times as the Wall of Pius is roughly the dividing line between the Scottish Highlands and Lowlands. Litte information is available on the clothing worn by the ancient Picts. Macbeth, the Mormaor (Great Steward) of Ross and Moray assasinated Duncan (1040). Macbeth ruled until he was defeated and killed by Duncan's son Malcomb Canmore who returned from exile in England. Malcomb is the beginning of increasing English influence on Scotland.
The Medieval era can be said to have begun with the recall of the Roman Legions from Britain (409). With the withdrawl of the legions, the Picts intensify their raids south.
It is at this time that waves of migrating German tribes, the Saxons, sweep over Britain. With the Saxons are the Angles and Jutes.
Many Celtic Britons retrating from the Saxon invasions settle in Caledinia between the Firth of Clyde and the Solway Firth which eventually collaseses in to the Kingdom of Strathclyde.
To the north at the beginning of the 6th century, Celtic invaders from Ireland establish the Kingdom of Dalriada. These are the people that are today known as the Scotts.
Strathclyde and some Picts were converted to Christianity and Columba came to Dalriada from Ireland (563). He largely converted the remaing Picts.
For some time the Saxons and associated tribes (Angles and Jutes) did not venture to the far north and come in contact with the Picts, but slowly the Saxons and other Germanic tribes did push north. The pagan Angles, another invading Germanic tribe settled in what is now northern England founding the kingdom of Northumbria. The Angles in the mid-6th century moved north seizing much of the land south of the Firth of Fourth and east of Strathclyde. The Picts defeated a large Northumbrian army near Dunnichen (685). After this encounter there was continuous border warfare, but the Northumbrian grip on southern Scotland.
A Pictish king Angus MacFergus conquered Strathclyde and Dalriada and ruled over much of Scotland (731-61). He can be seen as the first Scottish king. Gradually the Picts disappeared as a separate group. The Pictish dominance brought and era of relative peace until the end of the 8th century. It is at this time that the Norsemen begin raiding coastal towns along the North Sea. The Picts focus on the raiding Norsemen, allowing Strathclyde and Dalriada to reasert their independence.
ThevNorse began raids on the Scottish and English coast in the late-8th century. They dis not suceed in estanloshing pemanent settlements in mainland Scotland, but did seize the offshoire islands (Orkney, the Shetlands, and the Hebrides).
King Keneth MacAlpine of Dalriada and a descendant of the Pictish royal family obtainted the Pictish crown (844). Many Picts may have supported him hoping for support in their efforts to fend off the Norsemen. The united kingdom was called Alban and included all of Scotland nort of the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. Inconclusive wars with Northumbria followed. Mac Alpine and his successors often in alliance with Strathclyde and occassionaly with Northumbria wared against the Norsemen. They prevented pemanent Norse settlements in Dalriada, but the Norse did seize the offshoire islands. Later kings of England would base a claim to Scoland on aid provided by Northumbria to Alban. Alban kings in the 10th century after having finally repulsed the Noesemem escalated attacks on Northumbrian positions south of the Firth of Clyde during the 10th century, but with little success.
Alban King Malcomb II decisively defeated the Northumbrians at Carham (1018). Malcomb's grandson Duncan whonsucceeded him inherited the crown of Strathclyde. With the military victories of his grandfather and his inheritance, the kingdom inclyded all of northern Britain south to the Solway Firth and River Tweed. It is at this time that the kingdom becomes known as Scotland. Duncan engaged in disatrous wars and faced rising internal opposition.
Macbeth, the Mormaor (Great Steward) of Ross and Moray assasinated Duncan (1040). Macbeth ruled until he was defeated and killed by Duncan's son Malcomb Canmore who returned from exile in England.
Malcomb III's victory over Macbeth began a new era in Scottish history. Malcom's time in exile had profoundly affected him. Scotland befoire Malcom was an essentially Celtic kingdom. Malcomb began a process of Anglization that chalenged Celtic cistoms and institutions. Alban and Scotland were buiklt around Dalriada which was founded by Irish Celts. Strathclyde included the descendens of many Celts pushed north by the Saxon invasions. There is cinsiderable debate asc to the realtinship between the Picts and Celts, but eben if not of Celtic ancestry, the picts were strongly influenced by the Celts. Malcomb married the Saxon Princess Margaret (1067). She had fled the Norman conquest of England after William's victory at Hastings (1066). As she was a devout commuicant of the Roman Catholic Church, she was a major factor in the increasing Anglization process. Under her influence, the Celtic Scottish Church wasctransformed and the ritual brought into harmony with the Roman Church. There was considerable opposition to Anlization. When Malcomb died there was ooen rebellin (1093). Donald Bane drove Malcomb's son Duncan II, Margaret, and theie English retainers into exile in England.
Another of Malcomb's sons, Edgar, with Normon assistance defeated Bane. Edgar was crowned (1097). The Anglization of Scotland accelerated during Edgar's reign (1097-1107) and that of his two brothers, Alexander I (1107-24) and David I (1124-53). All three had been heavily influenced by their exile in England as well as their mother's English religious and cultural outlook. The initial changes were ecclesiastical matters but other sectors were gradually influenced as well. The new Church authorities supressed Celtic religious orders. English clerics replaced Scottish monks. Many new monastaries were opened. The English clerics brought the largely Celtic Church into conformity with Roman practice and ritual. English began replacing Gaelic, first in court circles, but also gradually in everyday life in the borders and Lowlands. First in the towns, but gradually in many rural areasas well. David I introduced Norman-style Feudalism to Scotland. Davis abolished the traditional system of land tenure which was essential tribal. Rather David claiming the Crown owned all land granted large tracts in central and southern Scotland to his key supporters, both Anglo Normon and Scottish nobels. David proceeded with a range of judicial, legislative, and administrative reforms essentially based on Normon models. He promoted trade with England and granted privildes to many Scottish burghs (towns). David despite his English outlook, did not maintain good relations with England and even supported efforts to dethrone an English monarch. There were border disputes with Tortumbria over lands south od the Tweed. Northumbria was granted to David's son Henry, but the English revoked that grant in relatiation for David's meddling in English politics.
William the Lion, David's grandson was crowned (1165). He attempted to regain control over Northumbria and supported a rebellion against English King Henry II (1173-74). The rebellion failed and in the ensuing fighting William was captured and forced to sign the Treaty of Falaise (1174). One of the provisions was that William swear fealty to the English monarchy. This in the future was to be another legal basis for English claims on Scotland. The Scotts subsequently enduced Richard II to annul the treaty ipon payment of 10,000 Marks of silver.
Alexander I succeeded his father William and renounced Scottish claims to northern England (1237). This began a period of realtively harmonious relations. Alexander III following a successful war against Norway recovered the Hebrides for Scotland. Alexander III died without a male heir (1286). His only descendent was Margaret of Norway and infant, but even she died (1290).
Alexander II's death and then the death of Margaret left Scotland in crisis. There were 13 descendents of former kings who claimed a right to the throne. Sone turned t the English for support. English King Edward I taking advantage of the crisis offered to mediate and avoid civil war. The act of mediation involved Edward and the English in Scottish politics and helped to advance his claim of suzerainity over Scotland. The chief claimants were John de Baliol and Robert Bruce, both grandsons of David I. Edward led an army north to establish his overlordship and chose John de Baliol king over Robert and the other claimants. After Edward departed Scotland, John found it difficult to rule because of the growing anti-English feeling. John was induced to sign an alliance with France, which at the time was at war with England, and led a revolt against Edward and the English (1295). Edward moved north again and utterly destroyed John's army at Dunbar (1296). He deposed John, annexed Scotland to England, and governed Scotland by military occupation.
Scottish resistance did not end with John's defeat at Dunbar. Scottish resistance was complicated because there was no one accepted national leader and many Lowland Scotts had been heavily Anglicized seeing the Highlands, where resistance to the English was strongest, as backward and barbaric. A commoner William Wallace emerged as the center of resistance. Wallace gathered an army and defeated a much larger English army in the famed battle of Sterling Bridge (1297). (The Hollywood blockbuster "Wallace" with Mel Gibson forgot the bridge which played a key element in the battle.) Edward I returned to Scotland oknce agin with aneven larger army and defeated Wallace at Falkirk (1298). Wallace organized a guerilla war against Edward which lasred several years. Edward determined to end the low-level, but costly guerilla war, returned again to Scotland at the head of a large army (1304). Wallace was betrayed to Edward and brought to London where he was tried for treason, convicted, and executed (1305).
It was Robert the Bruce who fianlly obtained independence for Scotland and English recognition of that independence. Robert's role in the early phases of the Scottish War of Independence is murky. Robert was the claimant to the Scottish throne that Edward had rejected. Whule opposing Edward, Robert was no friend of Wallace who as a commoner always claimed to be acting in the name of King John de Baliol. Robert had opposed both Wallace and John. After Wallace's execution, important elemenents in Scotland, both the nobility and the clergy, began gravitating to Robert. He was crowned (1306), but his forces experienced a series of defeats at the hands of the English forces in Scotland. Edward I died and was followed by Edward II (1307). Edward II was not prepared to continue the exhausting and expensive military campaigns in Scotland. There were still English forces un Scotland and important elements of the nobility that supported the English. Robert began an incessent guerilla campaign against these forces and systematically reduced or eliminated English garrisons and pro-English nobels (1307-14). Robert was able to succeed largely bcause Edward II, unlike his father, did not bring a large army north. Robert successes enabled him to gradually build a Scottish army so by 1314 hecwas no longer a guerilla commander. Robert not only eliminated English garisons and pro-English garrisons, but he also on occassion forayed into northern England. Finally Edward reacted. He organized a punative camapign and marched north. Robert met Edward's army at Bannockburn and achieved the most stunning Scotytish vicory over an English army in the long history of war between the two nations (1314). Edward refused, however, to recognize Scottish independence and war continued, albeit at low intensity for more than a decade. It was at this time that commoners obtained representatioin in the DScottish parliament (1326). Finally after the death of Edward II, the war was ended. The regents for the young Edward III endorsed the Treaty of Northhampton recognizing Scotland as an independent kingdom (1328). Robert died the next year having achieved his goal (1329).
European monarchs in the Medieval era faced two challenges to their authority. The first was from the papacy the other was from the nobility. The Fedudal systenm was basedc on land grants by the king to his loyal retainers. This enabled these nobels over time to build power in their owned domains that in some cased rival that of the monarchy or at least made it difficult to compel compliance with royal edicts. Some countries like Poland were destroyed because of the power of the nobility. The nobility and the papacy managed to prevent the creation of a unified German kingdom. In other countries (England, France, and Spain) the monarchy prevailed although in some cases only after protracted war amd internal strife. After Robert the Bruce died, the Scottish nobility made it difficult for the monarchy to govern Scotland let alone resist expeditions by a succession of English kings. In Scotland's case the authority of the Monarchy is further weakened by the continuing power of the clans, especially in the Highlands. Scotland's survival as a nation at this time probably is due largely to the fact that the English monarchy had extensive domains in France more valuable than Scotland. As a result, the Hundred Years War (1347-1453) and English claims to the French throne itself absorbed the energies of the English monarcy.
David II succeeded his father as an infant at a very dangerous time (1329). His reign was troubled by feuding nobels and English King Edward III who ignored the Treaty of Northampton. Edward II supported the claim of Edward de Baliol, John's father, to the Scottish crown. With English assistance, Edward de Baliol marched north, defeated a small Scittish army at Dupplin Moor, and was crowned king (1332). He had virtually no support in Scotland and was soon driven from power. Edward III himself then marched north with a sizeable English army and defeated the Scotts at Berwick-upon-Tweed (1333). The English restablished Baliol on the throne and proceeded to occupy much of southeastern Scotland. It is at this time that the Hundred Years War with France breaks out and Edward III's attention is directed south at the much more valuable possessions in France. He largely abandons Baloil and a now adult David II mananages to retake most of occupied Scotland, including Edinburgh (1341). The English at this time desiring to focus on the war with France try to convince the David to renounce the 1295 treaty with France which is still in force. Instead David invades England to support the French (1346). The English defeated David's Scottish army near Durham and David is taken prisoner (1346). The English proceed to occupy much of southern Scotland. The Scotts paid an immense ransome to free David, but his defeat has further weakened the monarchy (1357).
The Stuart dynasty was founded by Robert II. The Stuarts were unable to overcome the Scottish nobility and impose strng royal authority in Scotland. As a result, Scotland under the Stuarts were unable to resist English encroachments. While the Reformnation was initaited by the English monarchy, in Scotland in occurred in spite of the opposition of the monarchy, although supported by the English. Ironically, although Queen Elizabeth executed her Catholic rival Mary Queen of Scotts, her Protestant son James V of Scotland succeeded her as King James I of England, launching the English Stuart dynasty.
Robert II, a grandson of Robert the Bruce, succeded David (1371). Robert II founded the Stuart dynasty of Scottish kings. Robert was unable because of the feuding nobility to formly establish royal government or effectively resist the English. When his son Robert III became king (1390), royal authority in Scotland was a fiction.
Finally some success in restablishing royal authority was achieved by James IV. This was in part possible because James married Margaret Tudor, a daughter of Henry VII. This was one of the most fateful marriages in English history. The initial impact was that it ushered in a time of harmonious relations with England, allowing James to concentrate on domestic affairs. (In the longer term it was the basis for the Stuart claim to the English throne after the death of Henry VIII's daughter Elizabeth.) The harmonious relations with England began to cahnge after the accension of Henry VIII (1509). Henry joined the Holy League against France (1511). He invaded France (1513). Honoring the treaty with France, James invaded England, but his army was destroyed and he was killed at Flodden Field (1513).
James V succeeded his father as an infant. Despite tghe defeat at Flodden Field and the ibfluence of an English faction, the regents that governened Scotland maintained the French alliance. When James reached his majority he endorsed this policy (1528). His chief adviser was a prelate and future cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, David Beaton. It was at this time that Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church launching the Reformation in England. Henry tried to convince James to carry out comparable religious reforms and end the French alliance. James refused. Even without royal support, the Reformation began to gain ground in Scotland, at first among the pro-English faction. James married a French princess Mary of Guise (1538). The union with a foreign princess was not popular in Scotland and was especially resented by the growing Protestant faction. The growing antagonism with Henry resulted in renewed fighting, but mostly Catholics rallied to the royal banner. The English defeated James's army at Solway Moss and he died soon afterward (1542).
The Scottish crown with the death of James was inheited by his daughter who was born only weeks earlier (1542). The queen's regent James Hamilton, Secind Earl of Arran, immediately ordered the arrest of Cardinal Baton, her father's chief adviser. Hamilton's sympathy with the Reformation couls have meant an aporoachment with Henry VIII. Attroicities committed by English soldiers in southern England (1544-45), however, made this impossible. Hamilton strengthened the alliance with France. Mary of Guise, the queen mother, became regent (1548). Unpopular in Scotland, she was preceived as attempting to turn Scotland into a French colony. This was especially resented by the rising Protestant faction. Mary who was betrohed to the French dauphin was sent to France (1548) and married the Dauphin (1558). The exiled Protestant leader returned to Scotland (1549) and adding to the growing resentment toward the monarchy. When Mary of Guise declared the Protestants heritics thaere was rebellion. Mary og Guise had been supported by England's Catholic Queen Mary. On her death the Scottish Protestants began receiving military and financial assistance aid from Protestant Queen Elizabeth. Elizabeth ordered an English fleet to lay seige to Edinburgh (1560). Hostilities were ended with tghe Treaty of Edinburg (1560). It provided for the withdrawl of French and English forces from Scotland and the removal of Mary of Guise as regent. Mary died shoerly after. Scottish Protestants met in a special parliament and voted to abolish the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland and adopted a Calvanistic Confession (1560). The Dauphin Francis II, Mary's husband, became king, but died within a year (1561). Catholic Queen Mary after the death of her husband returned to now increasingly Protestant Scotland. Mary was now a central figure not only in Scotland, but also in England. As Cathlics did not recognize the Protestant succession in England, they regarded her as the legitimate queen of England as well as Scotland. She was thus a serious threat to Queen Elizabeth. This eventually led to Elizabeth's execution of Mary and after Elizabeth's death the accession of Mary's son James V of Scotland to the English crown.
While the Reformnation was initaited by the English monarchy, in Scotland in occurred in spite of the opposition of the monarchy, although supported by the English.
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