The Europeans in the early-20th century were still not sure that America was a real nation, made up as it was of people of so many etnicities. The British had the clearest outlook, wanting from an early stage to involve the United States. The Germans were less focused on America. In the end they decided that the United States was not a real threat. In World War II there was a geater realization of the potential power of the United States. Hitler was cautious. He was not about to turn away from war, but decided that he could complete the conquest of Europe before America could or would interfere. And here ethnicity was at play. Some of the most important ethnic groups were stronly against involvement in another European war. The Germans were the largest ethnic minority and they were strongly isolationist. This was not because of any support of Hitler, but more a general support of pacifism and isolationism and certainly did not want to fight Germany again. Another large ethnic minority was the Italians. Here Mussolini was more popular with Italians and Italian-Americans dis not want a war with Italy. The Irish wre not pro-German, but they were anti-British. Other ethnic groups like the Chinese, Jews, and Poles as well as other groups like the Dutch, Greeks, Norwegians, and Serbs became pro-involvement after their countries were invaded, but they were relatively small groups. All these ethnic differences largely disappered after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Hitler's declsration of War, a signal as to how well America had assimilated immigrant groups. America was still a very segregated society in the 1940s. Many of the initial actions taken against Jews by the NAZIs were not unlike the Jim Crow segregation laws in the South. The Nuremburg Laws of 1935 began to develop a radically different program of removing Jews from the national economy rather than the focus of the American segregation laws which was exploit blacks economically. Still there were similarities as both systems were designed to destroy or precent the formation of a culture and a political roll in scociety. Other groups were also decriminated against to various degrees including Catholics, Chinsese, Jews, Mexican Americans, and others. It was only after the War and the horrors of the Hollocaust reached American newspapers and newsreels that an increasing number of American began to question their own mistreatment of minorities and fuel the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 60s.

Blacks

America was still a very segregated society in the 1940s. Many of the initial actions taken against Jews by the NAZIs were not unlike the Jim Crow segreagation laws in the South. The Nuremburg Laws of 1935 began to develop a radically different program of removing Jews from the national economy rather than the focus of the American segregation laws which was exploit blacks economically. Still there were similarities as both systems were designed to destroy or prevent the formation of a culture and a political roll in scociety. Other groups were also desriminated against to various degrees including Catholics, Chinsese, Jews, Mexican Americans, and others, but Blacks were the group most affected. By the time of World War II, the Great Migration had shifted the Black populaion from the rural South where they could not vote to the urban North where they could vote. As result, Black spokesmen like A. Philip Randolph was able to secure a non-discrimnatory clause in Federal contracts connected with the war effort. The military, however, remained strictly seggreagated during the War. Mrs. Roosevelt pushed importahnt programs like theTuskeegee Airmen. Black servicemen talked about the Double-V effort, victory over the Axis aboroad and racism at home. It was only after the War and the horrors of the Hollocaust reached American newspapers and newsreels that an increasing numver of American began to question their own mistreatment of minorities and fuel the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 60s.

Figure 1.--Americans were deeply divided as war begun, first in Asia and than in Europe. Most americansanted no part of nother war. This changed over time, especially as war broke out in Europe abd than France fell to the NAZIs. Still there was great resistance to entering the War. Attitudes diring the War were strongly affected by ethnicity. The first groups to shift toward interbention was Chinese americans, beginning with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Here a iittle Chinese-Americn boy orator gives an impassioned patriotic speech in Brooklyn to collect funds to aid Chinese child vicyims of Japanese aggression. The press caption read, "Child Champion of Chinese Childrren: Richard Gum Loon (Good Neighbor) Lee, 5-year-old son of John Lee, of Brooklyn, is kown in native costume as he delivered one of his speeches on behalf of the thousands [CIH note: Note the lack of appreciation for the dimensions of Japanese aggression] of children in war-torn China. The boy speaks in English and Chinese, appealing for funds to aid the innkcent sufferers in the crucible of war tht was the land of his fathers. Richard's grandfther, Philip Lee, was one if Sun Yat Sen's original suppprters." The photogrph was dated January 6, 1939.

Chinese

The war in China is one of the least covered campaign of World War II. Yet it is the Japanese aggression in China and not the NAZI aggressions in Europe or U-boat attcks in the North atlntic that would eventually propel America into the War. Chinese-Americans were strongly anti-Japanese because of Japanese aggression in China. This began even before the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931). It continued and greatly expanded with the invasion of China proper (1937). News of terrible attrocities reached the Chinese community first, but were soon confirmed by missionary reports as well as reports from the foreign press in China. From the beginning the Japanese committed terrible attriocities in China and some of the details were reported in the American press. The Chinese were a relatively small immigrant group with very limited political clout and impact on public opinion. Christian missionaris in China, however, were a very different matter. They did have a significant impact on American public opinion. The American missionry movement was conducted about a century and had aeal impact on american thinking bout China. Missionary came back to America and spoke in churches throughout the country. And as the Japanese began their aggressive moves, they presented reports of the terrible atrocities they were commiting. As aesult there was much less resistance to a strong American resonse to Japan than to Germany. Of course the public assesment of Jpan as a much eaker country also probably affected public thinking. The Unites States as a result began to put diplomatic pressure on Japan beginning with trade sanctions. Public opiniom was not the only influence on american policy. Japanese military expansion ws another fctor. And then American code breakers cracked the Japanese Purple (diplomatic) code which provided relalitic insights into the Imperial Government's plans and thinking. In the end it was American support for China, namely demands that Japan stop its aggression in China that would cause the Pearl Harbor attack and America' entry into the War.

Dutch

The Dutch were a relatively small and highly assisimalated minority.

Germans

The Germans were the largest ethnic minority and they were strongly isolationist. This was not because of any support of Hitler, but more a general support of pacifism and isolationism and certainly did not want to fight Germany again. They remembered the wave of anti-German sentiment that swept over America after the United staes entered World war I. Despite all the histrionics and pro-NAZI activities of the German-American Bund, most Germans were well assimilated and fiercely patriotic, From Eisenhower on down they were an important part of American fighting forces. Many Germans had emigrated to America after the failure of the liberal 1848 Revolutions in Germany. Thet were both seeking economic opportunity and aviding military conscription. Many settled in the Midwest. And they were an important part of the isolationist movement, not because they supported Hitler, but because they wee opposed to war. Like many Americans at the time, many did not understand that Hitler planned to attack America Once he had conquered Europe. After Pearl Harbor, however, isolationism amost immediately disappeared. There are countless accounts of German-Americans fighting the NAZI war machine. One especially interesting account was B-17 pilot Werner Goering who as tge name suggests was the Recmarshall's nephew, FBI Chieg J. Edgar Hoover ordred his co-pilot to shoot if he showed any sign of defecting to the Germans. [Frater]

Greeks

The Greeks were not significantly involved in the intervention debate, at leass until Mussolin invaded Greece (OCtober 1940) followed by Hutler (April 1941). The Greeks were able to fight off the Italians, but not the Germans even with Brtish help. Soon after the German occupation, a teriblle famine was underway in Greece.

Irish

The Irish were not pro-German, but they were anti-British. The leading Irish-American politican was Joseph P. Kennedy who the President chose as ambassador to Great Britain, in part to repay Primeminister Chambelain's snubs. The President would regret that appointment as Chamberlain and Kennedy got along so well, in part because the ambassador approved of Chamberlin's apeasement policy. Kennedy was about to come out strongly for the Isolationists and critcize the President, but for political reasons decided not

Italians

Another large ethnic minority was the Italians. They were one of the minorities most in tocvh with the home country. In fact more Italians returned home after making a little money than any other important immigrant group. Mussolini was more popular with Italians and Italian-Americans did not want a war with Italy.

Japanese

Some children were more adversely affected by the war. Although not separated from their patents, Japanese Americans in Pacific coast states were interned in concentration or relocation camps as they were called. Italian and German families were also interned, but only aliens or those whose parents have been involved or suspevted of involvement in subversive activites. President Roosevelt in February 1942 signed the order "evacuating" Japanese, most of whom were Japanese citizens, from the West Coast. The order only affected the West Coast, not the Japanese on Hawaii. About 127,000 Japanese Americans were interned. It was one of the most grevious violations of the civil rights of American citizens in United States history. While the internment of Japanese Americans was a terrible injustice, depriving them of their property in many instances and their freedom for several years, the camps were quite different than the the NAZI and Japanese concentration camps. The internees were given adequate food and the children attended local schools. Japanese Americans formed Boy Scout troops such as at the Gila River Relocation Center, Arizona, during 1943.

Jews

American Jew were strongly for action against the NAZIs. They did want they could to support European Jews, although immigration quots and latent-nti0Semitism in the State Department impaired these efforts. The problem for them was that many American had anti-Semetic views to vary degrees. And one of the Isolstionist charges was that Jews werec trying to drag America into another War. And as the Isolationosts lost one battle after another they increasingly played the anti-Semetic card. Aviator Charles Lindbergh was jist one of the Isolationists that made this charge in his speeches. This certainly prevented the President from attempting to change immigration policy and it may have affected his judgement about the Holocaust.

Native Americans

Native Americans would seem to be the least sucessful group in the American ethnic melting pot. There is no doubt that the Native Americans were abused and taken advantage of from the time that the English bgan establishing colonies along the Eastern Seabord. Conflict was inevitable given that ultimately there would be a conflict over the land. The United States policy toward Native Americans ws first to force them west and ultimaely on to reservations. The choice of marginal land for the reservations affected the prospects of the various Native American people. In modern times, the Native American people have not been forced to live on reservtions, but many chose to do so. And the results in economic terms has been abject failure. At the same time, efforts to remove Native American children in Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools have been roundly criticised as cruel and inhumane. One author describes the 'the horror of Native American boarding schools'. While such efforts certainly can be criticized, the problem posed by assimilating a stone age people into modern life is commonly simply ignored by authors primarily interested in criticizing America. Despite this a history of mistreatment, no other American ethnic group came to the country's defense with more unanimity and fierce patriotism than Native Americans. An Army historian writes, "The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor seemed to waken an ancestral warrior spirit in many Native Americans. Thousands of young Indians went into the armed forces or to work in the war production plants that abruptly emerged during military and industrial mobilization. A 1942 survey indicated that 40 percent more Native Americans voluntarily enlisted than had been drafted." [Morgan] The Native Americans that went to War forged an illustrious history. A Native American was among the men who raised the flag on Mount Suribachi. In addition to combt operations, Native Americans served as code talkers, especially in the Pacific. And the different reservations also supported the War in various ways.

Norwegians

Poles

We are not sure about Polish-Amricans attitudes before the German invasion. Here we are talking about Christian Poles. Jewish Poles generally identified with the Jewish community. (Polish Jews are often identified as Rissian Jews because most of Poland was until World war I part of the Russian Empire. Anti-Semitism was strong in the Polish Christian community. Thus they may not have been as anti-NAZI as most Americans. This of course changed when after completing the subjection of Czechoslovakia, Hitler turned on Poland. Poland was the first European country to resist the NAZIs and as a result World War II began with the German invasion of Poland (September 1939). Polish-Americans thus turned strongly anti-German, creating support for Roosevelt's interventionist policies. Poles appear to have volunteered for military service in larger numbers than the overall population. Large numbers of Polish-Americans returned to Poland after World War II. We are not sure why this occurred, but many Poles were industrial workers and members of labor unions. They may have been influenced by Communist propaganda. We do not yet have information on what became of the returnees.

Sources

Frater, Stephen. Hell Above Earth: The Incredible True Story of an American WWII Bomber Commander and tge Co-Pilot Ordered to Kill Him (2012).

Haiman, Miecislaus. "The Polish American Contribution to World War II," Polish American Studies Vol. 3, No. 1/2 (Jan. - Jun., 1946), pp. 35-37.

Morgan, Thmas D. "Native Americans in World War II," Army History: The Professional Bulletin of Army History No. 35 (Fall 1995), pp. 22-27.

Created: 8:35 AM 1/28/2013
Last updated: 11:13 AM 3/10/2016