Figure 1.--.

The 1960 preidential campaign was a close-fought election which occurred at a critical point of the Cold war. Both Vice-President Nixon and Senator Kennedy pursued foreign policy themes in the campaign. Both advocated strong anti-Communist policies. Senator Kennedy constantly reinterated the theme of getting the country moving again. He made the "Missle Gap" a major issue in the campaign. He over emphasized the Soviet lead, but correctly assessed the importance of the developing Space Race. He also criticized the Eisenhower administration for allowing a Communist regime to seize power in Cuba. An important feature if the election was the first televised debates beetween the two candidates. Most observers believe that the debates were the deciding factor in Senator Kennedy's narrow election victory. Interestingly, perceptions were different depending on wheter voters wathed on television or listened on radio. Vice President Nixon ordered his staff not to bring up the question of Kennedy's Catholicm. The final analysis of the election showed that Kennedy's religion ended up helping him more with Catholic voters than it then it hurt him with Protetant voters. Nixon frequently criticized Kennedy for his inexperience. A major shift in black voting occurred. Reverand Martin Luther King was arrested in Atlanta, Senator Kennedy called to offer his sympathy. This gained Kennedy important support with Black voters in the indusrial northeast. Public opinion polls show that in the final days of the race, the gap between the two candidates began to narrow. A factor may have beem that President Eisenhower who had not been overly helpful to the vice-President began to campaign actively. The polls at the end of the campign accurately predicted a very close election.

Cold War

Both advocated strong anti-Communist policies. Senator Kennedy constantly reinterated the theme of getting the country moving again. He made the "Missle Gap" a major issue in the campaign. He over emphasized the Soviet lead, but correctly assessed the importance of the developing Space Race. He also criticized the Eisenhower administration for allowing a Communist regime to seize power in Cuba.

The Debates

An important feature if the election was the first televised debates beetween the two candidates. Most observers believe that the debates were the deciding factor in Senator Kennedy's narrow election victory. Interestingly, perceptions were different depending on wheter voters wathed on television or listened on radio.

Catholcism

The United States was founded as a Protestant nation. Only Maryland had substantial numbers of Catholics. And Maryland was not one of the larger states. Ans there was not at first a high degree of trelgious toleration. This only changed because there was no single Protestant denomination. In fct there were so many Protestant dnominations that a high degree of religious toleration devloped in the north and considerable opposition to an established church developed in the South where the Angkicn Church if England was dominant. As a result, religious freedom was insjrined in the First Amendment of the Constitution. And this not only included choice of Christian denominations, but f any religion. But while religious freedom was estanlished by the First Amendment, the vast majority of Americans were Protestants. And this meant that there was considerable fear of Catholics based on the English and uropean experience. Substantial numbers of Catholics did not begin arriving in America until the Irish Potato Famine (1840s). For three decades, the Irish were he only large group of Catholics. This did not begin to change until after the Civil War (1870s). Both Orotesabts and Catholics came, but Cathoics came in very large numbers, and this continued until World War I. Catholic immigrants canecfrom Belgium, Czechoslovkia, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovena, Slovakia, and other countries. The largest group was Italians. The major concern was that Catholics held allegince to the Pope and not to the United States. Catholics beginning with the Irish tended to vote Democratic. This process began as th Democratic political machines very ffectively coopted the immigrant communities. The Republican after the Civil War were inclined to adopt protectionist policies. Early labor unions tended to support Republicans because immigrant labor impaired their ability to demand higher wages. As a result of the Civil War the Southern states became solidly Demicratic. Relativly few Catholics settled in the South, except for Lousiana. This made for a unstable Democratic coalition. Democratic presidential candidates could not win without the South and the South would not vte for a Catholic candidate. The Democrats thus would not nominate canfidates from some of their major constiuencies. When they finally nominated a Catholic (Al Smith in 1928) it was a dusaster for the Party. President Roosevelt and the New Deal brought Labor into the Democratic coalition. The Democrats nominted another Catholic in 1960, Massachusetts senator John F. Kennedy. Vice President Nixon ordered his staff not to bring up the question of Kennedy's Catholicm. The final analysis of the election showed that Kennedy's religion ended up helping him more with Catholic voters than it then it hurt him with Protetant voters. Since the 1960 election, the Catholic vote has become ctitical in elections. And ironivally given the Protestant blief that Cathlics were disloyal, Catholics have become perhaps the nost patriotic of all voter groups. Candidates fliert with ffailure id they do not gain the Catholic vote. Catholics tradutionally vote Denocratic because of the Party's success with ethnic minorities and supportvfrom Labor unions. Catholic voters can be won over as Presidents Eisenhower and Reagan showed. And patriotism has a special appeal to Catholic voters. It is not the only issuecimportnt ton them, but it is an importnt one. And Mrs Clinton ignored this to her peril. Evagelical Protestants voted overealmingly for Trump in 2016, but Trump also carried Catholic voters, albeit by smaller numbers.

The South

Since the Civil War, a Democratic candidate had little chance of winning the election without the Solid South. President Truman in 1948 was the only Democrat to win the presidency without the Solid South (1948). The Democratic dominance in the South began to decline in the South with President Tuman because of his and the northern Democratic Party's commitment to civil rights. This and Gen Eisenhower's popularity meant that Democrats failed to hold the Solid South. Kennedy if he was to win the election would have to carry most of the South. But this presented a special problem. Not only was thenationsal Democratic Party unpooular because of its Civil Rights commitment, but Kennedy was a Catholic. Tge South was the most Protestabnt section of the country and their was still substanbtial anti-Catholic feeling especially among Southern Baptists and Lutherans. Religious feeling was part of it, but the idea that Catholic were more loyal to the Pope than America was widespread. The only other Catholic Democrat, New York Governor Al Smith, lost much of the South (1928). His Catholcism hurt him badly in the South. Kennedy's enbraced Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., the civil-rights leader, after he was was arrested in Georgia for taking part in a sit-in. [Kennedy, Letter] This further hurt him in the South, but gained him votes in northern cities. This turned many black voters in major cities permanetly toward the Democrats. Until this there were many African-Americans that voted Republic. This chanbged dramatically. Of course this did not help in the South where most African-Americans were prevented from voting. It was here that Kennedy's asute choice of Texas Sentator Lyndon Johnson made a crucial difference. Coming from the South and sporting a Southern accent, Johnson had an appeal that helped to blunt Kennedy's liberal northern image. There is no way of knowing just how important Johnson was. But he appears to have had a sinifgicant impact. Kennedy as a result managed to carry more of the South than any Democratic candidate since Franklin Roosevelt, including the Electoral College rich Texas.

Experience

Nixon frequently criticized Kennedy for his inexperience.

Civil Rights

A major shift in black voting occurred. Reverand Martin Luther King was arrested in Atlanta, Senator Kennedy called to offer his sympathy. This gained Kennedy important support with Black voters in the indusrial northeast.

Public Opinion Polls

Public opinion polls show that in the final days of the race, the gap between the two candidates began to narrow. A factor may have beem that President Eisenhower who had not been overly helpful to the vice-President began to campaign actively. The polls at the end of the campign accurately predicted a very close election.

Sources

Kennedy, John F. "Letter to Georgia Governor Ernest Vandiver (October 26, 1960).

Created: 3:32 AM 2/1/2012
Last edited: 11:14 AM 6/19/2018