Figure 1.-- Here President Roosevelt is in Amarillo, Texas. He campaigned hard for liberal New Deal candidates in the 1938 Congrssional elections. I think I see Lyndon Johnson, a newly ekected Congressman in the car with him. Amarillo was in the heart of the Dust Bowl, but not that it fained that day. Despite the President's best efforts, the Roosevelt Recession, however hurt him ans liberal candidates. Conservative Democrats and Reoublicans won many important seats.

The 1938 Congressional By-election was in many ways a repudiation of President Roosevelt, largely because of the so-called Roosevelt recession. It essentially marked the end of the New Deal. The Court-packing fiasco was a factor. Another factor was the President's attempt to purge the Democratic Party of recalcitrant conservatives. Not only did he fail, but the voters voted out many liberal loyalists. What ever the cause, it brought to Washington Republicans who with the southern Democrats created a conservative Congressional majority eager to oppose the President on liberal domestic issues. The major issues dominating the election was the faltering domestic economy. Ominously, the election took place just after the Munich Conference in Europe. many of those Republicans were prone to oppose the President's efforts to stand up to the Dictators that were threatening world peace. This greatly complicated President Roosevelt's ability to challenge the Dictators and aid the Allies in the developing European crisis. Ironically, many of the southern Democrats he attempted to defeat proved to be valuable allies as the President shifted from domestic New Deal politics to international efforts to stop the march of Fascist dictators and increase defense spending. The election resulted in the defeat of many liberal New Dealers and the return to Washington of many conservative Republicans--many with strongly isolationist views. The Democrats retained majorities in both houses, but a substantial part of that majority was conservative Southern Democrats. The President's one area of maneuver was that the Southern Democrats while opposed to liberal New Deal legislation and suspicious of foreign entanglements were supportive of national defense measures. This enabled the President to move ahead on needed measures such as rearmament and the repeal of the Neutrality Act, although his Congressional margins were often very narrow. His measures could only be passed with the support of the southern Democrats and they were also dead set against immigration reform.

1936 Landslide

President Roosevelt's New Deal succeeded in stabilizing the financial system, but it did not end the Depression. Important steps were taken to ameliorate the suffering and enact social reforms enacted--especially Social Security. The major reason for the New Deal--the Depression continued. Despite this, President Roosevelt continued to be immensely popular with the American people. The Democrats at their convention in Philadelphia enthusiastically renominated President Roosevelt. The President had not solved the Depression, but most Americans believed he was concerned about them and making things better. The Republicans in Cleveland nominated Kansas Governor Alfred M. Landon. Landon and the Republican attacked the New Deal while supporting its objectives. President Roosevelt conducted an active campaign, traveling by train and speaking on the radio. The President's use of radio was nothing short of masterful. His Fire Side chats had made a personal connection with the American people that would remain unbroken throughout his presidency. Most Republicans failed to understand that their had been a sea-change in how Americans viewed government. They made a major issue out of the New Deal, focusing on Social Security. It was passed in 1935 and due to go into effect in 1937. The Republicans charged that Social Security was a fraud. This was the first time the Republicans took on Social Security, but it would not be the last. Roosevelt responded with a robust defense of Social Security just a few days before the election. A Literary Digest poll predicted a Republican victory. The poll was conducted over the telephone and no one thought of correcting the results for Democratic voters who could not afford a telephone. The President easily defeated Governor Landon in one of the greatest landslides in American political history. Along with his personal victory, the President helped widen the Democratic margins in the House and Senate.

Court Packing Effort

The Court-packing fiasco was a factor. President Roosevelt had proven himself to be one of the most gifted politicians in American history. His 1932 election victory had created a political coalition that would reverse the Republican Party's domination of American politics that had begun during the Civil War. The elections of 1932-36 had fundamentally changed American politics. The Democratic power with few exceptions (Cleveland and Wilson) had been out of power since the Civil War. While these elections transformed the Presidency and Congress, the Federal judiciary was a bastion of conservative thought deeply hostile to the New Deal. Today conservatives complain about activist liberal judges. Liberals in the 1930s faced activist conservative judges. Some authors describe the Supreme Court in the 1930s as pursuing judicial imperialism. The President expanded Democratic majorities in both houses during the 1934 Congressional elections. The President's 1936 reelection was one of the greatest landslides in American history. This must have affected President Roosevelt's outlook as he proceeded to make a rare political error--an effort to pack the Supreme Court. The President while pleased with the 1936 election results, was increasingly frustrated with the Supreme Court composed of many conservative Republican appointees. Not one vacancy came open in the Court during his first term (1933-37). The Court at first had accepted most New Deal programs. Chief Justice Hughes had, however, began to lead an anti-New Deal coalition which succeeded in striking down some of the most important New Deal programs.

Roosevelt Recession (1937-38)

The Roosevelt Administration which took office in 1933 made substantial economic progress, although the statistics can be and often are manipulated for partisan purposes. Considerable economic growth was achieved. GDP growth averaged an impressive 9 percent. This was, however, from the severely dressed levels that existed when the President assumed office. The New Deal also reduced unemployment from from 25 to 14 percent, although a substantial part of that employment increase was Government jobs programs like the Works Progress Administration (WPA). President Roosevelt as the economy began to improve decided that he had to address the problem of rising deficits. He thus decided to balance the budget and cut deficit spending. This mean both reducing spending and tax increases to raise revenue. At the same time, the Federal Reserve raised reserve ratio requirements for member banks which contraction the monetary base. The economy soon slumped back into recession. Unemployment rose to 19 percent. The most often sited reason for the recession which became known as the Roosevelt recession was the President's attempt to mollify conservative critics by cutting deficit spending. Commonly partisans cite this as the reason for the recession. In fact there are probably three major causes of the recession: 1) Administration cutting deficit spending, 2) Federal Reserve contracting the monetary base, and 3) Administration tax increases. The causes of the Roosevelt recession have been studied at some length by economists. There is general agreement that these were the three major factors. There is no agreement as to the relative importance of these three factors. Milton Freedman has focused on the Federal Reserve’s tight monetary policy. [Freedman and Swartz, pp. 493-545.] The issue is complicated and can not be easily answered. What is important to bear in mind in addressing the literature is that some economists will draw conclusions based on ideology. Often Keynesian economists will fail to mention the tax increases. And free market economists will down play the importance of the spending cuts.

The 75th Congress (1937-38)

The Roosevelt 1936 landslide helped increase the Democratic margins in both the House and Senate. The President's Party held one of the most lop-sided majorities in American history: the Senate (76-16) and the House (334-88). The election brought more liberals to Washington. The President;s working majorities were not as large as the numbers suggested. Conservative Democrats joined with the Republicans on important votes. The President was able to get through important measures, including a minimum wage, administrative reforms streamlining the executive branch. His plan to add six more justices to the Supreme Court. however, encountered resistance from Democrats as well as Republicans. The President turned the fabled Roosevelt charm on recalcitrant Democrats. This was on exhibit at a fabled weekend outing at the Jefferson Island Club along the Chesapeake Bay--a weekend getaway (June 1938). Every male Democrat in Congress was invited. It was a combined fishing, skeet shooting poker, drinking, and skinny dipping junket. [Dunn] An enjoyable time was had by all as the President attempted to play the role as party leader. Back in Washington, however, Congressional Democrats continued to resist the popular President. A resounding 70 senators, most of the Democrats, rejected the Court Packing bill.

Roosevelt Purge

Another major factor in the election was the President's attempt to purge the Democratic Party of recalcitrant conservatives. As the summer arrived so did the selection process for Democratic Party Congressional candidates. Most sitting Congressmen whether they voted in lock step with President or not, coveted his support. The President inserted himself in Democratic Party primaries to oust several sitting Senators and Congressmen. By August he was stumping the country, particularly the South, speaking against sitting Democratic Senators. This was a step virtually unprecedented in presidential politics. His targets included Walter George in Georgia and Millard Tydings in Maryland. Senator Tydings in particular had angered the President because of his outspoken New Deal positions. The President was perhaps the most gifted politician in American politics, but he failed utterly. He did not manage to unseat one conservative Democratic Senator. [Dunn]

Campaign Issues

The major issues dominating the election was the faltering domestic economy. Ominously, the election took place just after the Munich Conference in Europe. Foreign affairs did not, however, have a major impact on the campaign.

Election Results

The 1938 Congressional By-election was in many ways a repudiation of President Roosevelt, largely because of the so-called Roosevelt recession. Not only did the President fail to unseat sitting Democratic Senators, but the voters voted out many liberal loyalists that he had backed. The Republicans picked up 8 Senate seats and and an astonishing 80 House seats. The Democrats because of the lop-sided 1936 results, retained strong majorities in both houses. A substantial part of that majority was, however, conservative Southern Democrats. The liberal Democratic ranks had been decisively thinned.

Impact

The Congressional losses essentially marked the end of the New Deal. What ever the cause, it brought to Washington Republicans who with the southern Democrats created a conservative Congressional majority eager to oppose the President on liberal domestic issues. many of those Republicans were prone to oppose the President's efforts to stand up to the Dictators that were threatening world peace. This greatly complicated President Roosevelt's ability to challenge the Dictators and aid the Allies in the developing European crisis. Ironically, many of the southern Democrats he attempted to defeat proved to be valuable allies as the President shifted from domestic New Deal politics to international efforts to stop the march of Fascist dictators and increase defense spending. The election resulted in the defeat of many liberal New Dealers and the return to Washington of many conservative Republicans--many with strongly isolationist views. The President's one area of maneuver was that the Southern Democrats while opposed to liberal New Deal legislation and suspicious of foreign entanglements were supportive of national defense measures. Some of the Southern Democrats he had tried to unseat proved to be important allies on national defense issues. Here some of his liberal allies were less enthusiastic, This enabled the President to move ahead on needed measures such as rearmament and the repeal of the Neutrality Act, although his Congressional margins were often very narrow. His measures could only be passed with the support of the southern Democrats and they were also dead set against immigration reform.

Ending the New Deal

The Congressional mid-term election of 1938 essentilly ended the New Deal. The Democrats retained control of Congress, but the Republicans gained seats in both the House and the Senate for the first time since 1928. And conservative Democrats retained their seats. As a result, President Roosevelt decided not to offer any new liberal programs in his State of the Union address (January 1939). Instead he concentrated on the threat that aggressor nations were posing to international peace. And the President and First Lady began to focus on lfe after the presidency. The United states at the time had a tradition of two term presidencies set by none other than President Washington. It was a tradition and not a legal requiremnt, but the Roosevelts and Washington political establishment began to prepare for the 1940 election and a new president. In the end, it wou;d be the War and not the New Deal that ended the Depresion. nd the Presudent's focus chaznged entirely from liberal activism and Dr. end the Depression to Dr. Win the War. Mrs. Roosevelt continued to chmapione liberal causes, but for the President opposing the Axis dictatorsbecane his mission. In the end it would be NAZI dictator Adolk Hitler that would keep President Roosevelt in office. The shatering NAZI victory and the fall of France also shattered the Three Term prohibition. The American people decided they wanted a steady hand on the helm. To Mrs. Roosevel's tsurprise and disappointment, she and her husband were not going anywhere.

Fighting the Isolationists

President Roosevelt has been criticized for not supporting liberal issues such a anti-lynch laws and increasing immigration quotas. Some liberally oriented authors claim that politic equation in short was that there was a political cost from liberals for failing to act on immigration. (Perhaps even more significant here was Eleanor's endless lectures.) This is surely a mistaken reading of the political winds. The President and his liberal allies were punished at the polls for economic failure and the substantial upswing in unemployment. There almost certainly would have been a much more significant political cost if he attempted to increase immigration quotas. And considering that many key votes were razor thin, the President's predicament can be seen. It is easy enough to criticize now, but considering the stakes at the time, any attempt on immigration reform could have had disastrous consequences on American national security. And it must be added that Allied victory in World War II ultimately saved half of Europe's Jews from the Holocaust. Had Roosevelt failed in his fight with the Isolationists, the NAZIs would have certainly been even more successful.

Sources

Dunn, Susan. Roosevelt's Purge (Belknap.HarvardL 2010), 361p.

Friedman, Milton and Anna Schwartz. A Monetary History of the United States.

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