Figure 1.-- |
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The marriage of Ferdinand V of Castile and Isabella I of Aragon essentially united the Iberaian peninsula, except Portugal, into a Spanish monarchy (1479). The last Moorish city, Granada fell (1492). With the Moors at last defeated, the Spanish could turn their energies into naval expansion, but weree behind the Portuguese in this area. Genonese navigator Christopher Columbus is the most renowned of all the great explorers. He sailed west under the banner of their most Cathlolic magesties Ferdinand and Isabella, hoping to reach the Indies (1492). The voyage was intensely debated by Spanish authorities. Knowledgeable people did not believe that the orld was flat. Many did believe that the world was so large that the crews of ships sailing west would perish before reaching Asia. Coilumbus of course found America, although it was not until his third voyage that he began to realize that he had found an entire new continent. Nuñez de Balboa reached the Pacific over the Istmus of Panama (1513). Charles I commissioned Magellan to find a passage through the Americas to the Spice Islands. Magellan sailed from Seville (1519) and explored the Plate estuary (1520) before crossing into the Pacific through the straits at the tip of South America now named for him. He claimed the Philippines for Spain, but was killed there (1521). One if his ships managed to return to Seville, completing the first circimnavigatiin of the world (1522). Conquistadores Hernado Cortes and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Incan civilizations, laying claim to great wealth and a vast colonial empire for Spain. Although at first disappointed with their new lands, the conquest of the Aztecs and Incas brought vast quantities of gold and silver flooding into Spain and through Spain the rest of Europe and had an enormous impact on the still largely feudal European economies. Many other new products were broughtb back to Spain. One of these, the humble potato, had an even more profound impact than the gold and silver. Coronado and Ponce de León expanded the Spanish claim to North America as well.
The Arab armies fired by Islam reached Western Europe in the 8th century, sweeping over the Iberian Peninsula, but turned back by the Franks at Tours. One
small Christian kingdom remained unconquered. What followed was the reconquest of the Iberian Penninsula by a long series of Christian kings. The last Muslim
kingdom to fall was Grenada (1492).
The marriage of Ferdinand V of Castile and Isabella I of Aragon essentially united the Iberaian peninsula, except Portugal, into a Spanish monarchy (1479). The last Moorish city, Granada fell (1492). With the Moors at last defeated, the Spanish could turn their energies into naval expansion, but were behind the Portuguese in this area.
Spain and its Catholic monarchs in the late 15th century were focused on the Reconquista and Mediterranean politics. They had not like the Portuguese heavily invested in Atlantic voyages and acqyuiring geographic and navigational data. Several unrelated developments, however, combined to launch Spain on the path of global empire and fabulous wealth. The rise of the Ottoman Empire began to close off Europeans to easterly trading routes. And the victory of Venice over Italy within Italy, mean that Genoans who had acquited geographic and navigatiojal knowledge had to look west for employment. And the most obvious place for such employment was the Overian Peninsula which jutted out into the Atlanic Ocean. Both Portugal and Spain had Atlantic ports from which expeditions could be launched. The Poirtuguese had already invested heavily in maritime expeditions and did not need Italian navigators. Spain on the otherhand had not. Thus the Italian skills and knowledge were of much greater importance.
Genonese navigator Christopher Columbus is the most renowned of all the great explorers. Columbus came from modest origins in Genoa (1449). He was influenced by Paolo Toscanelli--the Sage of Florence who urged ebterprising navigators to sail west. Columbus and other Genoese navigators and seamen sought employment in the West after Venice defeated rival Genoa in a struggle for naval supremecy in the Eastern Mediterranean. As a young man Columbus traveled extensively in Europe, concocting money-raising schemes and fleeing his creditors. He also acquired navigational and maritime skills. Columbus saided as far west and south as Maderia where his Portuguese wife's relatively prosperous family lived. Most of his voyages, however were north and south. He was part of a Portuguese expedition to Ghana. And he sailed north to England to trade wool. Columbus and fellow Genoan John Cabot may have made a compsct to cooperate in exploring the Atlantic (1483). [Boyle] Columbus appealed to King John II of Portugal to finance a voyage west into the Atlantic. Navigation experts at the court focused on voyages south along the coast of Africa rejected his project as unfeasible. Columbus finally sailed west on his First Voyage under the banner of their most Cathlolic magesties Ferdinand and Isabella, hoping to reach the Indies (1492-93). The voyage was intensely debated by Spanish authorities. Knowledgeable people did not believe that the world was flat. Many did believe that the world was so large that the crews of ships sailing west would perish before reaching Asia. He began the settlement of his discoveries on his Second Voyage (1493-95). Columbus of course had found America, although it was not until his Third Voyage when he reached the South American continent that he began to realize, but never admitted. that he had found an entire new continent (1498-50). [Bowden] Columbus despite his achievements was a controversial figure in his own era. And in our politically correct world has become a controversial figure. Many of found of insisting that he was not the first European to reach the Americas. This is probably correct, the Viking amnd Leif Erickson almost certainly reached North America centuries earlier. Columbus was the first, however, who had his voyage extensively document and the results published. Columbus is also accused of brutality and mistreatment of the Native Americans. Much of this is true, but in this regard he seems little different than other early explorers. It is also true that he was a failure as a colonial administrtor. He was in fact returned home from his Third Voyage in chains. His final Fourth Voyage ended in disaster and he almost perished on Jamaica where is ship wrecked (1502-04). He finally had to buy his passage home to Spain--a great humiliation. All of this, however, has little to say as regards his achievements a navigtor. The Americas today would surely be named after Columbus, excpet that he continued to insist that he had not discovered a new continent, but had reached the fabeled East.
One might wonder why America is called America rather than Columbia after Columbus who after all discovered it for Europeans. America is named after Amerigo Vespucci who never commanded an exploratory expedition. Vespucciwas born in Florence, the third child of a respected but minor family. His father was a notary for the Money Changers' Guild of Florence. As a result of his more advantageous social position, he had much grander aspirations than his more humble Genoan competitors (Columbus and Cabot). The young Amerigo worked for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici and his brother Giovanni. It was these brothers who were driven out of Florence when the Midicis fell from power that sent Vespucci to work in of all places Seville, Spain where they had an agency (1492). This was of course the precise time that Columbus' voyage opened up tremendous opportunities. Vespucci became an agent to Columbus' agent and financier.
Thus the virtually unknown Italian merchant began the transition to a famed explorer and cartographer. Vespucci participated in two Spanish expeditions along the southern coast of South America. As a result of these voyages, he realized that the coast of the what Columbus had discovered extended much further south than originally believed. He thus came to believe that the discovery was a new continent and not Asia as Columbus and others originally believed. German scholar and cartoghrapher Martin Waldseemuller honoring Vespucci's insight created one of the most historic maps in history (1507). His map was the first to show the Pacific as a separate ocean. And he was the first to name the new continent Columbus had discovered--America. The Spanish Crown created the position of pilot major (chief of navigation) of Spain for Vespucci (1508). He was given responsibility for training pilots (navigators) for ocean voyages. He sucumed to malaria and died in Seville (1512).
Vasco Núñez de Balboa was born at Jerez de los Caballeros, Spain (1475). He participated in an expedition with Rodrigo de Bastidas (1501). They were motivated by a report from Columbus that pearls could be found on the northern coast of Venezuela. Bastidas and Balboa traded inexpeive European trinkets for f pearls and gold. They then sailed west, but their ship began to leak. They had to abandon their ship on Hispaniola. Their treasure was seized by the Spanisg Governor and Balboa was penniless again.
He tried farming, but the labor and limited returns was not what hedreamed about. Leaving behind unpaid debts, Balboa stowed away with his faithful dog on board a relief supply ship headed for San Sabastian on the Isthmus of Panama (1510). Balboa's travels took him to Coiba where he befriended a local Native American chief, marrying the chief’s daughter. Balboa negotiated an alliance between the Spaniards and Comogre, another powerful native chief. It was Comogre who offered to lead the Spaniards to the other side of the isthmus if they would help defeat one of his tribe’s enemies. Balboa agreed and headed an expedition with 190 Spanish soldiers and about 1,000 Native Americans (September 1513). Balboa’s expedition crossed extreemly denses rain forest, fighting Native American tribes. Balboa from the top of the hill was the first European to view the Pacific (September 25, 1513). This confirmed the fact that what Columbus discovered was anew continent and not Asia.
Juan Ponce de Leon was the first European to reach the coast of what was go become the the United States (1513). John Cabot had earlier reached North America, but far to the north. He landed on am island off Nova Scotia, claiming it for the English crown. Ponce de Leon landed on the coast of Florida. He named it La Florida because of the many tropicl flowers he found there.
Charles I (better known as Charles V, commissioned Magellan to find a passage through the Americas to the Spice Islands. Magellan with a fleet of five ships sailed from Seville-- San Lucar de Barameda (1519) and explored the Plate estuary (1520) before crossing into the Pacific through the straits at the tip of South America now named for him. He named the ocean the Pacific, because of the calm waters he encountred . He claimed the Philippines for Spain, but was killed there (1521). Only one of his ships managed to return to Seville, completing the first circimnavigation of the world (1522).
The Conquistadores were private companies or armies which fought in the name of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies. Hernado Cortes led the Conquistadores who conquered the Aztec Empire. Francisco Pizarro and his brothers led thev Conquistadores who conquered the Inca Empire. The Conquistadores produced great wealth, gold and silver, and a vast colonial empire for Spain. Individual conquistadores often got only a small share of the gold and silver, but many benefitted from land grants. Although at first disappointed with their new lands, the conquest of the Aztecs and Incas brought vast quantities of gold and silver flooding into Spain and through Spain the rest of Europe and had an enormous impact on the still largely feudal European economies. Many other new products were brought back to Spain. One of these, the humble potato, had an even more profound impact than the gold and silver. Coronado and Ponce de León expanded the Spanish claim to North America as well.
Cortez's conquest of the Aztec Empire and acquisition of fabulous quantities of gold and silver fueld wild rumors about other rich Native Ameican empires. A factor here was the tactic of Native Americans of spinning wild tales of gold and wealth as away of directing the attention of the Spanish elewhre. Pánfilo de Narváez launches a expedition to Florida (1528). It was a disaster. The expedition included slaves.
Esteban (or Estevanico) became the first African to reach Nrth America. He was one of only four survivors.
The four men spent 8 years traveling from Florida, across Texas and the Southwest until finally reaching New Spain (Mexico). They were made slaves by the Native American peoples they encountered, but gradully earned the respect of the different tribes who found them so different than the other Spaniards they encountered. They finally encountered Spanish slave raiders (1536). Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca when he returned to Spain published an account oif their experieces (1542). It is an invaluavle account of the Native American peopls of the Southwest just as they encountered the Spanish.
Hernando de Soto in part based on the account of Cabeza de Vaca, landed on the coast of Florida (1539).
His expedition of 1,200 men included about 50 African slaves. He explored what is now the southeastern United States (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, and South Carolina). The expedition did not find the gol and rich Native American empire thar de Soto was seeking. The expedition ended in disaster.
Bowden, Thomas. The Enemies of Christopher Columbus.
Boyle. David. Towards the Setting Sun: Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and the Race for America (Walker & Company, 2008), 421p.
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