American Civil Rights Movement: Non-violent Action

Figure 1.--This Sit-in took place at the all-White Woolsworth lunch counter in Jackson, Mississippi on May 28, 1963. This Sit-in was conducted by three students from Tougaloo College, an all-Black school, and two white Civil Rights activits. The female students were Pearlene Lewis and Ann Moody. The male student (Memphis Notrman) is not in the photograph he was beaten unconcious while the police looked on and while unconcious arrested for didorderly conduct. The Civil Rights activists were John Salter and Joan Trumpauer. Note the older man in the rear. He is G.W. "Big Red" Hydrick, a local bootleger and committed racist. Earlier he had pistol whipped local NACCP leader Meder Evans who was later murdered. Note the expressions of the local teenagers tormenting them.

Although the Brown decission did not immediately desegragate Southern schools, it did help foster a decade of nonviolent protests and marches, often carried out by teenagers and youths. These ranged from the 1955-1956 Montgomery bus boycott to the student-led sit-ins and Freedom Rides of the 1960s. These protests were finalized by a massive March on Washington (1963). The Montgomery Bus Boycott thrust Dr. King in the national limelight. It was to lead to the first important victory over Jim Crow in the South when the Federal Courts the desegragation of Montgomery buses. Less publicised was a series of actions organized by teenagers and university students all over the South, at first without any kind of national coordination. It was dangerous and many went to jail because thy were violating state laws that had not yet been overtuned by the Federal courts or the Ciil Rights Act of 1964. Some Black leaders thought the Sitins to provocative, but Dr. King supported the students. Out of a need to coordinate these actions, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was established. Perhaps more important than the specific accomplishments of these actions was the the non-violence of the protestors in contrast to the often brutal suppresion tactics used by the police. These actions brought the issue of Civil Rights to the public eye and kept it there week after week as events unfolded in American living rooms on the nightly news.

Non-violence

Judicial decisions were the principal means of achieving many victories in the struggle for Civil rights. A range of non-violent actions like picketing, marches, sit-ins, and boycotts, however, played a critical role.

Specific Actions

Although the Brown decission did not immediately desegragate Southern schools, it did help foster a decade of nonviolent protests and marches, often carried out by teenagers and youths. These ranged from the 1955-1956 Montgomery bus boycott to the student-led sit-ins and Freedom Rides of the 1960s. These protests were finalized by a massive March on Washington (1963) which led to the passage of the Civil Rights Act (1964).

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-56)

Martin Luther King became the pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama only shortly before the bus issue arose (1954). He was already involved in the Civil Rights movement and at the time a member of the executive committee of the NAACP. He was not the not the most important Black leader in Montgomery nor was the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church the most important Black church. The Boycott was sparked by arrest of Rosa Parks (1955). It is no accident that the Montgomery Bus Boycott began in 1955. The Supreme Court Brown decission (1954) inspired action in many areas other than education. After the arrest, the Black community wondered if they could take any meaningful action. The more established leaders, however, were afraid to get involve when Rosa Parks for refusing to give up her seat to a White man. Dr. King's leadership in organizing the response--a boycott of the city busses brought him into national prominance. The response to Park's arrest was actually a reaction decades of intimidation, harassment and discrimination. of Alabama's African American population. It was the first important Black nonviolent action in the Civil Rights movement. Dr. King was arrested, his home was bombed, and he was subjected to personal abuse. Armed only with a powerful voice and message in a state where blacks were denied the right to vote and had virtually no access to basic legal rights, Dr. King became a powerful spokesman for Civil Rights. The boycott lasted 382 days. Finally the Supreme Court declared laws requiring segregation on buses unconstitutional. Blacks and Whites at long last rode the buses as equals (December 21, 1956). The Boycott was the first important victory over Jim Crow in the South. The Montgomery Bus Boycott thrust Dr. King in the national limelight.

Sit-ins (1960-64)

Less publicised was a series of actions organized by teenagers and university students all over the South--the Sit-ins. It was a tactic first used by organized labor. The campaign began without any kind of national coordination. The first Sit-in was held in Greenboro, North Carolina. Four Black college students (the Greensboro Four) sat down at the Whites-only lunch counter in the Woolworth Five and Dime (February 1, 1960). The White-only lunch counters were especially calling to many Blacks as they patonized stores like Woolsworth all over the South and ever time they did, there was the lunch counter that was off limits to them. The students ordered sodas, coffee, and doughnuts. In doing so they staged a non-violent frontal attack on the long established seggregation system. All over the South Black people had to stay out of white-owned restaurants. (The irony here is that they often worked in the kitchen.) Of course the issue of public accomodations was not just a matter of restaurants. It included a host of private and public facilities (drinking fountains and restrooms, buses, trains, movie theaters, swiming pools, sports stadiums, hotels, ect. The students were Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil, Ezell Blair Jr. and David Richmond, all still teenagers and freshmen on academic scholarships at North Carolina A&T State University. The University was an all Black school in North Carolina's still segregated educatioin system. The students did not know what to expect. They fully expected to be arrested and beaten. Blacks who confronted the Segregation ssystem were later found dead after being arrested by the police in the South. In this case they emerged unscathed. But a movement was launched. Students all in other areas of the South began staging Sit-ins. It was dangerous and many went to jail because they were violating state laws that had not yet been overtuned by the Federal courts or the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Arrest was not the only danger. Often mobs of Whites confronted the students. Some Black leaders thought the Sitins to provocative, but Dr. King supported the students. Out of a need to coordinate these actions, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was established. The Sit-ins had a number of advantages. They made news and helped build support for the Civil Rights Act before Congress. Cities had to use the police to evict or arrest the students and this became burdensome. It was also expensive for the businesses involved as with the seats filled and the turmoil, customers stayed away. The result was that in many cities, civil authorities began seeking accomodation.

Freedom Rides (1961)

Students activits launched the Freedom Rides to expose the seggregation in inter-state bus service throughout the South. They chose to go from Washington, D.C. to Montgomery. Alabama, at the time which symbolized the center of resistance to integration. It was one of te most courageous actions of the Civil Rights movement. The Riders were physically asaulted, some almost killed while local police watched and did nothing.

Marches

Civil Rights leaders conducted marches and camopaigns for jobs, voting registration all over the South. Nowhere were they more important than Birmingham.

Importance

Perhaps more important than the specific accomplishments of these actions was the the non-violence of the protestors in contrast to the often brutal suppresion tactics used by the police. These actions brought the issue of Civil Rights to the public eye and kept it there week after week as events unfolded in American living rooms on the nightly news.

March on Washington (August 28, 1963)

The shining momment of the Civil Rights movement has to be when Dr. King stood on the steps in front of the Lincoln memorial and told his country about his "dream". It is certainly one of the great speeches in American history. His riviting, brief address would in only 2 years be followed by the most far reaching civil rights legislation in American history. He ends the speech, "Free at last, free at last, thank God Almighty, we are free at last!" The original idea was not Dr. Kings', but A. Philip Randolph's in 1941 and he began promoting it again in the early 60s. [Bass] After sone initial reluctance, Dr. King agreed to the idea as a way of promoting the civil rights legislation before Congress. Many urged caution, but one deciding on the March, King promoted it with a passion and became adament about it. The Fedral Government prepared for a race riot. It proved to be the largest non-violent demonstration in American history with some 250,000 people on the Mall. At the time the dignified deportment of the crowd was reported by the media rather than Dr. King's speech. [Hansen] Many Whites had expected a Black riot on the mall. It is the "I have a dream" part of the speech that is best remembered today, perhaps it is the most lyrical, idealistic part of the speech--and for that reason probably most appealing to many White Americans. There were some more militant parts of the speech. Some speakers had to be restrained in their remarks. John Lewis with SNCC had wanted to thraten a non-vilolent march south like Sherman. King was criticised for not being militant enough. His speech is seen today as one of the most important speeches in American history. At the time many criticised March on Washington as pushing too hard. Justice Hugo Black who was concerned about demonstrations and petrified of mobs mentioned to an aquaintance of Dr. King that he should stop marching. When she passed on the message, Dr. King replied, "I'm sorry, Mrs. Durr. I greatly respect Justice Black, but we must march. I have to get fear out of these Negroes. They've been scared for three hundred years and they must get rid of fear before they'll ever be able to do anything. Marching is the only way to do this." [Newman, pp. 542-543.] Another major purpose was to convince President Kennedy to commit the political capital to make civil rights a priority. The President invited Dr. King to the White House afterwards and cingratlte him on his success. The President had decided to make that commitment.

Sources

Bass, Patrick Henry. Like a Mighty Stram: The March on ashington, August 28, 1963 (Running Press).

Hansen, Drew D. Martin Lurther King, Jr. and the Speech that Inspired a Nation (Ecco., 2003), 293p.

King, Martin L, Jr. Stride Toward Freedom.

Newman, Roger K. Hugo Black: A Biography (Pantheon: New York, 1994), 741p.

Created: October 25, 2003
Last updated: 2:00 PM 9/12/2008