Figure 1.--
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Figure 1.-- |
The United States was a largely European Protestant country. This began to change in the 1840s with the arrival of the Irish as a result of the Potato Famine. The Irish tended to stay in the large northern cities. The Mexican American War (1846-48) and resulting Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo (1848) brought large numbers of Catholic Mexican-Americans within the United States. It also brought more Native Americans within the United States. The discovery of gold in California brought people from all over the world to the West, including Latin Americans and for the first time Asians, nostly Chinese and to a lesser extent Chinese. There was also limited black migration from the South, which primarily affected Texas and Oklahoma. The Treary of Guadalipe Hildalgo guaranteed equal rights to Mexicans who became American citizens. Some Western states, particularly California segregated schools on an ethnic basis. This practice became pronounced in the 1910s with the expansion of the citrus industry in California. It was finally ended afyer World War II by the Mendez vs. Westminister Distric Court decesion. Governor Earl Warren also priceeded with legislative changes to the California school system. Because it was a District Court ruling and not appealed to the Supreme Court, the decesion did not affect the segregated schools in the South.
The United States was a largely European Protestant country. This began to change in the 1840s with the arrival of the Irish as a result of the Potato Famine. The Irish tended to stay in the large northern cities. The Mexican American War (1846-48) and resulting Treaty of Guadalupe Hildalgo (1848) brought large numbers of Catholic Mexican-Americans within the United States. It also brought more Native Americans within the United States.
The Mexican War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico. It is one of the most important wars fought by the United States because of the vast area of land annexed, about one-third of Mexio. It has, however, been given relatively little attention by American historians, possibly because it does not fit well into America's self image. Assessments of the War vary among both Mexican and American historians and among American historians. And these assessments have varied over time. The War began when Mexican units attacked U.S. troops in dispured territory between Mexico and Texas (April 25, 1846). Ther initial fighting took plasce in northern Mexico when General Zacrarry Taylor attacked across the Rio Grande. A small American force took New Mexico and California. When Mexico refused to make peace the United States invaded Mexico at Vera Cruz. The forced commanded by Gen. Winfield Scott moved inland and occupied Mexico City (September 14, 1847). A peace treaty was signed a few months later at Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848). Mecico recognized the U.S. annexation of Texas and ceded California and New Mexico to the United States. Mexian historians have always seen the Mexican War as naked agression by the United States. Some American historians in recent years have also come to this conclusion. This is considerable truth in this, but a strong jigoist element in Mexico desiring to retake Texas has to be considered. One often ignored question is why so few Mexicans moved into the northern territories. One reason the United States prevailed in the War was that so few Mexicans lived in California and New Mexico. The War is also notble because of the roles played by key figures in the coming American Civil War.
When Mexico refused to make peace the United States invaded Mexico at Vera Cruz. The forces commanded by Gen. Winfield Scott moved inland and occupied Mexico City (September 14, 1847).
A peace treaty was signed a few months later at Guadalupe-Hidalgo (February 2, 1848). Mecico recognized the U.S. annexation of Texas and ceded California and New Mexico to the United States. The Treary of Guadalipe Hildalgo guaranteed equal rights to Mexicans who became American citizens.
The discovery of gold in California (1848) brought Anmericans from the east as well as people from all over the world to the West, The Gold Rush played an important role in settling California. California at the time of the Mexican War was very ligtly populated by the Mexicans. There was also a small population of largely primitive Native Americans. This changed rapidly with the Gold Rush. The miners included Latin Americans and for the first time Asians, nostly Chinese and to a lesser extent Japanese. The American miners quickly moved to exclude the Chinese. So the Chinese moved into other areas such as manual labor. They played a major role in building the Trans-Continental Railway. Others set up small businesses like laundries and restaurants. Mamy Japanese turned to farming.
The American miners quickly moved to exclude the Chinese. So the Chinese moved into other areas such as manual labor. They played a major role in building the Trans-Continental Railway. Others set up small businesses like laundries and restaurants. Mamy Japanese turned to farming. At the time of the Gold Rush there were no significan restrictions on immigration/ The Chinese and Japanese, however had more diffuculty becoming naturilzed citizens. Details can be found on Chinese and Japanese immigration pages.
There was also limited black migration from the South, which primarily affected Texas and Oklahoma during the late 19th century. The larger black migration began to norther cities beginning in the 1910s with an upswing of Klan-inspired violence and World War I. This was called the Great Migration. While most black moved north during the Great Migration. There were some that headed west, most significantly to southern California.
Some Western states, particularly California segregated schools on an ethnic basis. This proved more complicated in the West than in the South where there was one principal minority group--black Americans. The West had Blacks, Chinese, Japanese, Mexicans, and Native Americans. It was complicated enough in the South creating two separate school systems. It was not feasible in the West creating multiple schools systems. So the policies varied from state to state. The general approach was to leave it up to each school district which could set up separate schools as they saw necessary.
The practice of segrgating schools became pronounced in California during the 1910s with the expansion of the citrus industry in California.
Mexicans seeking jobs in the developing citrus industry began moving moving into Anglo communities. Other Mexicans were driven north by the violence of the Mexican Revolution (1911-20). There was both legal school desegragation and de-facto segregation in other areas like jobs and housing. Many communities had a "Mexican side of town"." There were segregated movie theaters with special Mexican seating as well as "Mexican days" at public swimming pools. California did not as in the South have a completely separate school system for Mexican-Americans and other minorities.
California communities with substantial Mexican-American populations had some form of sehregation. Some schools had a "Mexican" room. Other communities had specially designated "Mexican" school.
This pactice was questioned at the end of World war II. Gonzalo Mendez, a tenant farmer in Westminster (Orange County), and his wife Felicitas (born in Puerto Rico) were tenant farmers. They were joined in a legal challenge by Mexican American World War II veterans. The veterans in particular were disturbed by the segregation of their children when they had fought and their comrades died for their coubtry. Mendez and other parents filed suit in a Federal court located in Los Angeles (12945). They filed suit against four Orange County school districts (Westminster, Santa Ana, Garden Grove and El Modena--now eastern Orange) asking for an injunction order the districts integrate segreagated schools.
The parent's attornies charged that whatever thge specific circumstances, that separate facilities were inherently unequal. They had an expert present evidence that this created an "inferiority complex".
Thurgood Marshall from the NAACP Legal Defense Fund authored an Amicus Briefs to the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals. Other Civil Right Groups such as the Japanese American Congress, The American Jewish Congress and the ACLU also participated.
The 9th Circuit U.S. Court of Appeals in San Francisco 2 years later ruled in Mendez vs. Westminister that school districts could not segregate on the basis of national origin (April 14, 1947). The Court ruled against the Separate but Equal Doctrine and found even if the schools had equal facilities (they did not), the schools could not separate children because of Mexican descent.
Governor Earl Warren proceeded with legislative changes to the California school system.
Warren wanted the Stte Legislature to repeal laws that segregated Asian and Native American schoolchildren. (Mexicans had not been specifically mentioned in the statutes.) Some California school districts maintained that Mexicans were Native Americans. Other districts identified them as "Spanish". Mexicans ethnically are descended from the Spanish and Native Americans. Most were by the 20th century a mixed people. (Governor Warren was appointed Supreme Court Chief Justice and proved to be the guiding force in Brown vs. Topeka (1954) which ended school segregation throughout the country.)
Because it was a District Court ruling and not appealed to the Supreme Court, the decesion did not affect the segregated schools in the South.
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