The Cold War: Soviet Spies

Figure 1.--The best known of the Soviet spies in America were the Rossenbergs. The American left and the Soviet propaganda machine turned the Rosenbergs into innocent marters and the Rosembergs themselves to the end claimed that they were innocent. Their two boys were turned into props for Soviet propaganda. We now know that the Rosenbergs, primarily Julius were guilty of espionage and that the material they passed on materially aided the Soviet atomic bomb program. It is no accident that less than a year after the Soviets exploded their bomb (August 1949). It is no accident that less than a year later, North Korean troops heavily armed with Soviet tanks and equipment crossed the 38th parallel, launching the Korean War (June 1950). Over 40,000 Americans, 5 million Koreans, and at least 0.5 million Chinese would die in the next 3 years of fighting. The irony of the Rosenberg case is that the Rosenbergs probably were true believers who did believe that their actions would promote world peace. The Soviet Union pepetrated the myth fervently held by the Amnerican and international left that the Rosenbergs were innocent and did not receive a fair trial. The skill of Soviet propaganda and the appeal of socialist ideology is demonstrated by the fact that this could be perpetrated by country responsible for the killing of millions and and the sentencing of even more millions to long terms in the Gulag without trials of any kind. The caption of this June 1953 wire photo read, "The two sons of condemned atom spies Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Julius' mother join marchers during a demonstration in front bof the White House. Michael, 10, walks between his grandmother, Mrs. Sophie Rosenberg, and an unidentified girl. Robert 6, looks away at right as his hand is held by Emily Alman, a leader of his demonstration." Emily Arnow Alman was a sociologist and attorney who was especially concerned witth basttered women and other social causes. Well intentioned people like Alman who exercized their constintutional rights to demonstrate never seem to have expressed concern about the absence of protest demonstrations on Red Square.

Widely publicized spy cases during the 1950s added to the public concern about an internal Communist threat. A myth developed during the 1960s that the American Government eroneously pepetrated a myth that Soviet agents penetrated the U.S. Government. One can argue about the seriousness of Soviet operations, but the historical record is clear. Soviet spies did obtain valuable information, especially on nuclear weapons. And Soviet agents or individuals sympathetic to the Soviets did rise to important positions, especially in the State Department. Information was developed by the FBI at the time. Subsequent information revealed by the Verona Papers and the brief opening of KGB files after the fall of the Soviet Union tell us much more. Two of the most important involved involving Alger Hiss and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. At the time the degree to which the Soviets had penetrated the Manhattan Project was not known. Only later were the Verona Intercepts lead to a fuller understanding of the Soviet spy network. Later Robert Oppenheimer himself came unders suspision. The Rosenbergs were probably not the most harmrful spys. There were others, including Klaus Fuchs who provided much more useful information. There is no doubt, however, Julius Rossenberg was a Soviet spy and was guilty of passing atomic secrets to the Soviets. While the Rosenbergs provided information of only limited value, they proved to be enormously effective in Soviet propaganda to condemn the United States. Rudolf Abel was the Soviet master spy in America during the Cold War. He operated under the name of William Fischer. He entered the United States in 1948 and set up an effective ring of agents. His primary assignment was nuclear weapons. He worked with both the Cohens and the Rosenbergs.

NKVD Washington Station Chief

Marshall Stalin individually picked NKVD Major Zaruban to serve as the NKNV station chief at the Soviet Embassy in Washington (October 1940). Major Zarubin earned this plum assignment because if his performance in interviewing Polish POWs taken after invading Poland as a NAZI ally (September 1939). Major Zaruban oversaw the interviews conducted at the Kozelsk prison camp. Kozelsk was a former Orthodox Monestary that the NKVD had converted to arison camp. It was here thst most of the Polish officers were sent. The interviews were not conducted in a brutal way. In fact, Major Zarubin conducted himself in a correct, even sympathetic manner. He was seen as an honorable, cultured Soviet official. Many of the POWs opened up to him, not aware that their lives were in danger. Many of the officers interviewed by Major Zaruban and his staff were subsequently shot by the NKVD in the Katyn Forest. Major Zaruban's orders were to cultivate agents of influence in the U.S. Government. His wife Elizabeth, who was a NKVD captain, accompanied him. When the Soviets learbned of the American effort to build an atmomic bomb, this became a priority in Soviet espionage. It would be Major Zarubin and his wife who would launch NKVD efforts to penetrate the Manhattan Project. They remained in Washington until recalled (1944).

Individual Soviet Spies

The Soviets mounted a massive espionage iperation in the United States. This was begun before Wotld War II, continued during the War and into the Cold War that followed the War. The NKVD/KGB planted agents, but for the most part the spying was done by American citizens. The motives of the individuals varied. Some were attracted by the money. Most were left-wing oriented idealists. During the War period, some believed that the Soviet Union had to be assisted because they were fighting the NAZIs. After the War the underlying motivation emerged, namely the belief that liberal democracy and free market capitalism was a flawed, exployive system. And they believed that Communism with its Socialist economic system was a nore just system that would lead to a more just utopian future. The terrible attricities of the Soviet state were either inknown or dismissed as a unpleasant necesity to achieve the ultimate goal of a just society. Liberal Ameeicans would decry the hunt for these Soviet agents and there is no doubt people's rights were abused and some politicans exploited the situation. One fact, however, can not be denied, that there wwas an extensive network of Soviet spies.

Rudolf Abel (1957)

Rudolf Abel was the Soviet master spy in America during the Cold War. He operated under the name of William Fischer. He entered the United States in 1948 and set up an effective ring of agents. His primary assignment was nuclear weapons. He worked with both the Cohens and the Rosenbergs. His agents had infiltrated Los Alamos where the Manhattan Project had developed the atomic bombs. Most analysts believe that the information gathered by Abel had a major impact on the Soviet nuclear program. He also set up sabotage operations in the United States and Latin America. The FBI did not arrest him until June 1957, primarily using information provided Reino Hayhanen, a Soviet defector. Abel was sentenced to 30 years in prison, but was released in 1960, in exchange for the the American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers, which the Soviets had shot down.

Joel Barr and Alfred Sarant

Joel Barr and Alfred Sarant are forgotten members of the Rosenberg spy ring. They were never caught and arrested. They managed to elude the FBI and find refuge in the Soviet Union. They played an important role in the development of modern Soviet technology. Nikita Khrushchev even built a new city--Zelenograd. This became the Soviet Union's Silicon Valley. They in effect helped found the Soviet microelectronics industry.

Whiiker Chambers

Klaus Fuchs

Klaus Fuchs was a German theoretical physicist. He was a refugee from the NAZIs taken in by the British. He was part of the British mission participating in the Manhattan Project. He passed valuable documents to the Soviets throughout World War II.

Ted Hall

Ted Hall worked at Los Alamos. He passed research information to the Soviets, but was not caught at the time. The Verona Papers eventually led the FBI to Hall. By all accounts the information on the Manhattan Project that he provided the Soviets was more valuable than that provided by the Rosenbergs. Once the Soviet's tested their first atomic bomb, he refused to continue cooperating with Soviets further. He turned down Rudolf Abel's request for further information on American atmomic research. Fearing arrest, he moved to England and was never prosecuted.

Alger Hiss (1904-96)

One of the most prominent Communist espionage investigations was that of Alger Hiss. For years the American Left insisted that Hiss was innocent, a victim of McCartyism. We now know that he was indeed a Soviet spy. Alger was born in Baltimore (1904). His father cimmitted suiside when Alger was only 2-years old (1904). Hess attended John Hopkins University and Harvard Law School (1926-29). He clerked for Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes. He then worked in the Departments of Agriculture, Justice and State during the New Deal. Hiss as atatec Department vofficial aided President Roosevelt at the World war II Yalta Conference (1945). He worked briefly as secretary-general of the ne United Nations. He began working as president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1949). During Congressional investigation of Soviet espionage, Hiss' name came up. Whittaker Chambers was called before the House Un-American Activities Committee (August 1948). He claimed during his testimony that Alger Hiss was a Soviet spy. The charge was referred to a Federal grand jury. Hiss denied Chambers's charge. Hiss was charged with perjury which was easier to prove than a treason or espionage charge. The first trial ended in a hung jury (1949). Federal procecutiors tried him a second time and obtained a conviction. He wa sentencedf to 5 years inprisinment. He was released (1954). After release he was active in left-wing circles and worked to clear his name. He became a poster boy for Government abuse of civil liberties. He unsuccessfully sued the U.S. government under the Freedom of Information Act, attempting to gain access to FBI and State Department files (1970s). This might be interprted as an innocent man trying to clear his name or a committed Soviet agent trying to gain the release of information bout FBI sources which would be useful to the Soviets. The United sTates after World war II succeeded in decoding large numbers of secret Soviet canles. This work became known as the Venona Papers. One of the cables refers to an American with the code name Ales. [Venona decrypt, March 30, 1945.] The cable idebntified Ales as a Soviet agent working in the State Department, who accompanied President Roosevelt to the 1945 Yalta Conference and then flew to Moscow. This description only fit Hiss. Hiss died (1996).

Isaiah Oggins (1898-1947)

Isaiah Oggins (Ysai or Cy) was an American communist who spied for the Soviet Union, but not in the United States. Simon M. Oggins and his wife Rena were part of the Jewish emigration from Tsarist oppression. they came from from the David 'Reuben' Abolnik shtetl near Kovno (Kaunas), at the time in Lithuania, part of the Tsarist Empire. They reached New York (1888). Isaih was the third of four children, born in Willimantic, Connecticut (1898). He was an excellent student and entered Columbia University (1917). Anti-Semtism was prevalent in America at the time, although not the horific Tsarist pogroms. Colombia had a quota,limiting Jewish admissions. He earned a B.A. in History and began working on his doctorate while working as a history reader at Colombia and then teaching in the New York Public School system. I am not sure about his motivation, probably anti-Semitism he experienced and ideological commitment to socialism. He ws no doubt impressed with Bolshevik propaganda about creating an ideal state. He joinied the Workers Party of America (1923). He began working as aesearcher at the Yale University Press. he married Nerma Berman (1898-1995) with similar left wing views (1924). She was a Rand School student and Communist activist. She was born in the Skapiskis shtetl (also near Kovno). She began working as secretary of the New York division of the National Defense Committee of the Rand School for Red Scare victims such as Scott Nearing and left-wing other professors. Oggins agreed to work for Sovie espionage. His U.S. citizenship provided access without suspision to other countries. He applied for a U.S. passport (1926). Nerma applied for aassport (1928). They departed New York and set up a safe house in the Zellendorf district of Berlin (1928). German at the time had a large, vocal Communist Party. The Ogginses moved on to Paris (1930). They lived in Neuilly-sur-Seine and spied on both the White Russian emigres and Trotskyites. When French counter-intelligence uncovered a Soviet GRU spy net work (exposure l'affaire Switz (referring to Robert Gordon Switz) (1933-1934). the Ogginses left Paris (1934). They returned to the United States with their young son Robin (1931- ) who was born in Paris. Oggins was given a new assignment in China (1935). He left his wife and child behind. His assignment was in Shanghai, the business center of China which the Japanese were trying to seize. He filed reports on northern China and Manchuris which the Japanese had seized. Japanese seizure of Manchuria was aajor concern for the Soviets, threatening Siberia and Vladisvostock. When the Japanese invaded China proper, Oggins fled. He reunited with his wife and Robin in Paris (1938). They parted again (May 1938). Oggins went to the Soviet Union. Nerman returned to New York with the outbreak of war (September 1939). The NKVD arrested Oggins at the Hotel Moskva (February 1939). Neither him or Nerma appear to have had the slighest idea that the Soviets of all people would arrest him. We are not sure why he was arrested, but being a Jew and American, was probably sufficent ground. He was taken to the Lubyanka. Aing was held (January 5, 1940). He received a sentence of 8 years. He was incarcerated at Norillag where he became known there as 'The Professor'. Nerma Berman Oggins asked the U.S. State Department to investigate her husband's disappearance. As a result U.S. diplomats were able to meet with Oggins at the Butyrka prison in Moscow (December 8, 1942). Stalin refused, however, to release Oggins. Even after his sentence was served, Oggins was not released. He was taken to Laboratory Number One (the 'Kamera'), where Grigory Mairanovsky injected him with the poison curare (1947).[Meier] It is not clear why Stalin ordered his execultion, but probably because Oggins knew a great deal about Soviet espionage. His wife Nerma who was critical with how Jews were treated in America, ironically worked with the FBI to help her husband. As far as we know, she never spoke out publically about what the Soviets did to her husband.

Michael Stright

One KGB plant began his career at age 9 in of all places an English private preparatory school. Many private schools were bastions of conservative thought. This was not the case of Dartington Hall. The school was founded by Leonard Elmhirst, an idealistic individual who dreamed of creating a utopian community with radical ideas about rural development and education. His marriage to the American railroad heiress and widow Dorothy Whitney gave him the money to actually experiment with his ideas. He bought the Dartngton Hall estate in South Devon after World War I. One author explains that the school provided "a heady atmosphere of sexual freedom and liberal thought". [Perry] Whitney's son Michael Straight arrived at the school at age 9 from America (1925). When Michael left school, seven of the 10 students are reported to have joined the Communist Party. This was at the time of first disilunionist following World War I, then the Depression and the rise of Hitler. Michael went on to Cambridge. Michael became a KGB plant in America. He was recruited by art historian Anthony Blunt. Notorious British spys like Kim Philby also came outof this inter-war environment. Srtraight went on to become a patron of none other than Elenor and Frankloin Roosevelt. He worked in the State Departmeht and edited The New Republic. His accomplishmentsd for the KGB are not readily apparent. One Australian author believes that he played a role in China's inrervention in Korea. [Perry] This is, however, speculative.

(The) Rosenbergs (1951)

The most famous spy trial was that of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. At the time the degree to which the Soviets had penetrated the Manhattan Project was not known. Only later were the Verona Intercepts lead to a fuller understanding of the Soviet spy network. Later evem Robert Oppenheimer came under suspision. The Rosenbergs were not the most hamrful spys. There were others, including Klaus Fuchs who provided much more useful information to the Soviets. There is no doubt, however, Julius Rossenberg was a Soviet spy and was guilty of passing atomic secrets to the Soviets. The Rosenbergs and Greenglasses grew up in New York City's Lower Easr Side. Conditions there turned many to radical politics. Both Julius and Ethel became committed Communists. The Rossenbergs like many American Jews had also become despondent in the 1930s over the rise of the NAZIs and persecution of Jews. Many American Communists in the 1950s still viewed the Soviet Union as an utopian state. The Soviet role in World War II had gained them great prestige. The chilling horrors of the Gulag were not yet well known. Most Communists ignored the extent to which the Soviets cooperated with Hitler after the NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact and the Soviet aggressions in 1939-41. Ethel had little to do with the spying, but she almost certainly knew about it. The Government hoped to force Julus to talk by threatening to execute her as well. The trial was held in 1951. Concerned that they had no real evidence on Ethel, the Government induced of all people her brother, David Greenglass, to testify falsely against her in exchange for lenient treatment for him and his wife. Greenglass had actually stole the material that Julius passed on to the Soviets. The Government believed incorrectly that Julius headed a major spy ring. [Roberts] While this was not true, he could have led the FBI to Rudolf Abel who did run a major spy ring. In the end, neither Julius or Ethel talked and they were executed, leaving their two boys orphans. Years after the trial, Greenglass resurfaced for a television interview. There was not an ounce of remorse for what he had done to his sister. While the Rosenbergs provided information of only limited value, they proved to be enormously effective in Soviet propaganda to condemn the United States. Many on the left were convinced that the Rosenbergs were innocent. One leftist activist, Ronald Radosh, a Red Diapper baby, wrote a book making a case for Julius' guilt. [Radosh] He was vilified by the Left because of the lingering sympathy for them as martyrs for the cause. Radosh subsequently became a right-wing supporter for the Contras in Nicaragua and apologist for Franco. After the fall of the Soviet Union, information from KGB archieves left little doubt that Julius was guilty. There is still no indication that Ethel was an active conspirator.

Morton Sorbell (1917- )

Morton Sobell was born into a Jewish family in New York City (1917). Hemet Julius Rosenberg while studying at City College of New York. He earned an engineering degree. Sobell and a friend, Max Elitcher, moved to Washington where they shared an apartment. They worked with the Navy Bureau of Ordnance. Sobell attempted to recruit Elitcher to assist in espionage activities. After the FBI arrested the Rosenbergs, Sobell managed to reach Mexico City with his wife Helen, infant son Mark, and Helen's daughter Sydney (June 22, 1950). He attempted to book passage to Europe, but did not have the needed passports was unable to do so. Armed men in plain clothes abducted him and his family (August 16). He was taken to the U.S. birder and turned over to the FBI. He was arrested for espionage, conspiring with Julius Rosenberg. He was a co-defendant at the Rosenberg trial. Sobell invoked his 5th Amendment rights and did not testify at the trial. He was found guilty and given a 30-year sentence. He was released from prison (1969). Sorbel wrote his autobiography, denying that he was a spy. [Sorbel] He claimed he fled becaused he had lied about being a member of the Communist Party. Sorbel finally admitted at the age of 91 years that he had lied and was involved in turning over nuclear secrets to the Soviets. [Roberts]

John Carter Vincent (1900-72)

John Carter Vincent long-serving American diplomat, one of a group who became known as the China Hands. Hr was born in Seneca, Kansas. He graduated from Mercer University and was accepted into the Foreifn Service. He served at many posts in China (Changsha, Hankow, Swatow, Peking, Mukden, Nanking, and Dairen). During the War he was appointed Counsellor to the American Embassy in Chongqing (1942). At the end of the War he became Director of the Bureau of Far Eastern Affairs (1945). He then received several minor postings before being forced to resign from the Foreign Service (1952). He and the other China Hands were accused of brong responsible for 'losing China'. This seems to be a unfair assessment as Chang and the corrupt KMT seem to be primarily responsible and could not have been saved without a massive military commitment in China. On the other hand it seem Vincent took positions that either suggest that he was not very well informed or was as charged, a Soviet agent. He insisted that the the Soviets had little influence with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and that the United States could develop a working relationship with them. We know that Nixon did just that in 1972, but that is not saying it was possible after World War II. Opinions on Vincent vary and are largely determined by the author's ideological bent. We have notedclims that the Verona Papers and KGM files briefly opened after the dallmof Communism show that Vincent was indeed a Soviet agent. Here we have not yet seen the actual definitive evidence.

Harry Dexter White

Harry Dexter White was one of the higest placed Sovier agents in the American Government. White was Treasury Secretary Morgenthau's deputy. His identity came to light in the Verona transcripts. White's 1938 assessment of U.S. policy toward Japan was among the documents found in the pumkin on Whittiker Chamber's farm. Nathan Silvermaster's ring of spys presented documents from White to Red Spy Queen Elizabeth Bentley. White is known to have used his position to advance Soviet interests. He helped to delay American assistance to Chaing Kai-shek during World War in violation of Morgenthau's instructions. He had a major role in drafting the Morgenthau Plan to essentually pastroalize Germany after the War. After the defeat of Germany, he helped get the Soviets plates of the occupation currency from which they printed $380 million in marks. White was, however, never procecuted. He died of a hear attack 3 days after testifying before the House Un-American Affairs Committee (August 16, 1948). [Craig]

Assessment

American journalists in the aftermath of 9-11 have decided that America needs more human intelligence rather than technology. Most ignore or more likely fail to understand than there are rare instances in history in which beligerants have penetrated the opponents inner circle. The Allies fought both World Wars without doing so and most of the Cold war as well. (The 1980s as the Soviet Union egan to unravel is a little different.) The Germans in both World Wars also failed to do so. The one exception was the Soviet Union's success in running spy rings in America, Britain, Germany, and Japan. They were very effective, but the reason for their success lies in the peculiar circumstances of the World War II era. Liberal thinkers were apauled by World War I. The Depression brought the capitalist sociities and governing class in further disrepute. At the time the attrocities of the Soviet state were not well understood in the West. The failure of the democracies to confront Hitler in the 1930s convinced many that they had to help the Soviet Union who at the time seemed to be the only state confronting Hitler. Many of these people raionalized Salin's Pact with Hitler (1939). During the War they felt it important to get Americam military secrets to Soviets who were bearing the brunt of the fighting against Hitler. The nexus of circumstances that led to the Americans spying for the Soviets was very unusual and rarely repeated in the history of espionage. The Soviets did score some successes later in the Cold War, but it was not the ideologically motivated spies of the World war II era. Rather the Soviets turned to the more common method of finding isolated individuals willing to sell secrets.

McCarythyism

Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican from Wisconsin, saw political capital in the growing anti-Communist sentiment. He charged that the Communists had penetrated the U.S. Government and traitors within were why the Communists had been so successful. McCarthy on delivered a speech in which he claimed to have a list of 205 people in the State Department known to be Communist Party members (February 9, 1950). McCarthy was grandstanding, his list was hardly a secret. It had actually been published earlier by the State Department (1946). The people on the list were hardly all Soviet spies. Some were Communists (which does not mean necessarily spies), but others were Fascists, alcoholics, and homsexuals. (McCarthy himself if not a Congressman might have been put on the list because of his drinking and homosexuality.) FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover played a major role in the rise of McCarythy, although it was unknown at the time. Hoover secretly provided McCarthy confidential FBI information. The Republican ledership in the Senate made McCarthy chairman of Government Committee on Operations of the Senate, giving him the opportunity to investigate communist subversion. McCarthy seized the opportunity and for 2 years conducted investigations often termed a witch hunt targeting the State Department and other Federal agencies. Federal employees brought before the Committee had few legal protections. McCarthy set out to ruin them unless they named Communist Party members. Favored targets were New Deal Democrats, many of who had left-wing political views. President Truman was portrayed as a bumbling incompetent with dangerous political views. Some of the finest civil servants were accused of being Communists, men like George Marshall and Dean Acheson. Critics of McCarthy had been defeated in the 1950 Congessional elections. as a result, few Senators dared object to his high-handed tactics. McCarthy McCarthy appointed Roy Cohn as the chief counsel to the Government Committee on Operations of the Senate (1952). Hoover had recommrened Cohn on the basis of his role in prosecuting Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. McCarthy also targeted what he called anti-American books in libraries. His researchers prepared a list of 30,000 books by "communists, pro-communists, former communists and anti anti-communists."

Venona Papers

The United States along with Finland and the Axis countries cracked some of the Soviet World war II codes. The U.S. Army's top-secret Signal Intelligence Service (SIS), the forerunner of the National Security Agency (NSA), began working on Soviet secret messages (February 1943) hoping to crack the dioplomatic code. SIS code named the effort JADE, BRIDE and DRUG, but it eventually became known as VENONA. Venona is just a code name and has no geographic connotation. The project was ininiated by Ms. Gene Grabeel, but military personnel soon took over the program. The Venona work was conducted at Arlington Hall. As the effort progressed the SIS obtained a range of Soviet messages. Many were fromm the Soviet Trade Office working with Lend Lease, but there were messages from any other agencies as well, including the military and intelligemce services. From an early stage, the SIS staff determined that the messages came from five different agencies with separate encryption systems. Although the effort began during the War, the SIS dis not suceed in reading many of the messages until after the War. . Many of the messages the United States had to work with were messages associated with the Soviet Trade Office involved with Lend Lease. The first success came fairly quickly. Richard Hallock, an Army Signal Corps lieutenant and trained an archaeologist (who worked with ancient writing systems) suceeded in developing insights into the system being used by Soviet trade officials who were relatively lax in their security measures (October 1943). This provided clues to other cryptologists working on messages from other Soviet agencies. Cecil Phillips managed to develop a beginning understanding of NKVD messages (1944). This was a more difficult undertaking because the NKVD more carefully protected their messages, using double encryption. As a result, it would take 2 years of work to actually read any of the NKVD messages. The Venona was assisted after the Germans surrendered (May 1945). Army security officers were able to obtain access to the German work on Soviet codes. Meredith Garner decrypted the first portions of the NKVD messages (Summer 1946). The results were starteling. It was clear by 1947 that Soviet agents had penetrated a variety of U.S. Government agencies. The British joined the effort and sent two of their cryptologists to Arlington Hall (1948). As information on Soviet espionage emerged, the Venona group contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). FBI Agent Robert J. Lamphere who was given access to the Venona decrypts. [Goebel] The American decrypts are today known as the Verona papers and provided insights into Soviet espionage operations in the United States.

Sources

Coulter, Ann. Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism (Crown Forum, 2003), 355p.

Craig, R. Bruce. Treasonable Dought: The Harry Dexter White Spy Case (University of Kansas Press, 2004), 2004), 436p. Craig's account is generally fact-based. One glaring error is the assertion that White did not hire other Communists and help others get sensitive Government posts. We differ on his assessments of what White did. Craig asserts that White was an horable man, convinced of the superority of the Soviet system. The emensity of Soviet crimes against humanity were not as well known in the 1940s, but there was enough known to question the attributes of the Soviet system.

Goebel, Greg. "Venona" 7.5. This is a chapter in a larger work, but it is unclear how to site the overall work.

Meier, Andrew. The Lost Spy.

Perry, Roland. Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight, the Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring (Da Capo, 2005), 395p.

Radosh, Ronald. The Rosenberg File (1983). Radosh, a committed Communist at the time, began his reserach in the 1970s thinking he could make a case for the Rosenberg's innosence. He found that Julius was in fact guilty.

Roberts, Sam The Brother: The Untold story of Atomic Spy David Greenglass and How He Sent His Sister, Ethel Rosenberg, to the Electric Chair (Random House, 2001), 543p.

Roberts, Sam. "Figure in Rosenberg case admits to Soviet spying, New York Times (September 11, 2008).

Sorbel, Morton. On Doing Time.

Venona decrypt, March 30, 1945.

Created: August 9, 2003
Last updated: 9:04 PM 12/6/2011