Figure 1.--These Soviet Ukranian boys are participating in a military parade, perhsps May Day in 1947. They were probably cadets in a militaryv academu. |
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Our discussion of the Cold War is primarily based on a chronological flow of events. This of necesity condenses the Cold War into its essence--a struggle between the Soviet Union and America. America's European allies played critical roles in the Cold War. but without America, Wesrern Europe could not have resisted the Red Army and Soviet domination after World War II. In Easter Europe, East Germany was the key for the Soviets because of the potential power of a united Germany, And because of its geographic lovation, Poland became the epicenter for the Cold War. For without a compliant Communist Poland, a the Communist East German regime was untenable. Unfortunately for the Soviets, Poland proved the most difficult Eastern European satellite country to control. Thus developments in individual countries, especially the European countries most affected by the struggle are not adequately presented. Here we will collect information on development in specific countries during the Cold War. Here we are just beginning this assessment.
The Cold war began in Europe. It was here that the Unites States and the Soviet faced each other directly. Few would have guessed even after the Soviet invasion (1979), that this poor, isolated central Asian country would play a major role in the Cold War.
The Germans, after the Italian surreder to the Allies in World War II, occupied Albania (1943). Reverses in the East and West, however, forced the Germams to withdraw from the Balkans. The Communist partisans were led by Enver Hoxha who seized control of Albania in the wake of the German withdrawl. Hoxha proclaimed a people's republic (1946). The Coomunists proceeded to seize land and nationazlize industries. Marshal Tito and the much stronger Yugoslav Army was in a position to control Albania. Tito broke from Stalin and the Soviet Bloc (1948). Hoxha used this to break from Tito and the Yugoslavs and became a Soviet ally. Albania joined the and joining the Warsaw Pact when it was firmed (1955). Hoxha subsequently broke with the Soviets a Chinese ally when the two Communist superpowers split (1961). Albania ties with China were severed (1978), but were renewed after the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe (1991). Hoxha proved to bev the longest-serving head of a Communist country. He turned Albania into a hermit kingdom. It was at the time of World war II a poor country. Under Communism the economy became a disaster. Even commecial relatiins with neigboring countries with discouraged. Vast amounts of money were spent on pointless military projects. Hoxa died (1985), leaving his country the poorest in Europe. Ramiz Alia replaced Hoxha and slowly soughtvto reengage with Europe. He established diplomatic relations many countries. Albania began to participate in Balkan affairs. The Democratic party was established (December 1990). The first multiparty elections in 68 years were held (March 1991). A non-Communist multiparty regime was elected (June 1991), but fell a few months later (December 1991). After decades of disaterous Communistvrule, Albania was an ecomonic basket case. Thousands of Albanians fled accross thecAdriatic tonItaly seeking jobs (August 1991). The Itakians returned most of them to Albania. Sali Berisha, a heart surgeon, was elected Albania's first non-Communist president since World War II (April 1992).
Hitler had forced Bulgarian to join the Axis, but the Bulgarians adamently refused to participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union. When the Soviet Red Army reached Bulgaroa (1944), the Bulgarians withdrew from the Axis and declared war on Germanyh on the Allied side. A new coalition goverrnment was formed in Sofia--the Fatherland Front which included the Communists. Initially the Communists, Bulgarian Workers' Party (BWP), took only a minority role in the government. Characteristically the BWP insisted on the Ministry of Interior, meaning that they controlled the police. The BWP had been excluded from power, thus they did not share in the blame attached to the old political parties for brining Bulgaria into the War. Thus membership in the Bulgarian Workers' Party (BWP) expanded substantially. The BWP moved to establish control over important state institutions (the army, the media, and civil service). The BWP also expanded its influence in local Fatherland Front inits. The Allied Control Commission in Bulgaria was controlled by the Soviets and associated the BWP. People who resisted the BWP were arrested. The U.S. and Britain, through the ACC, attempted to stop the BWP from turning Bulgaria from a multiparty democracy into a Soviet-style dictatorship (People's republic). The Red Army, NKVD, and BWP controlled Interior Ministry effectively controlled Bulgaria. The Allies did have the peace negotiations a a slender influence. The Soviets were, however, in xcontrol of the political process. Bulgaria was presented a peace treaty which was signed February 10, 1947. After this the Allies no longer had any influence in Bulgaria. The BWP proceeded to proclaime the People's Republic.
The BWP was led by Georgi Dimitrov. (A leading Agrarian Party leader had the same name. A referendum was held on the monarchy (September 1946). The result was the abolition of the monarchy. A new constitution wasafopted (December 1947). It declared Bulgaria to be a People's Republic. The Fatherland Front presented a unified list of candidates (1946) They received 3.0 million votes. The opposition garnered 1.2 million vote. The Bugarian People's Republic proved to be a slavish Soviet satellite during the Cold War.
The Cold War began in Europe, but spread to Asia as the conflict betwwn the Nationalists and Communists broke out into open warfare. The Communists emerged victorious anbd the Nationalists retreated to Formosa (Taiwan). The U.S. Pacific fleet prevented the Communists from crossing the Taiwan Straits. The Cold War turned into a shooting war in Korea. And the Chinese intervened to save the North Korean regime (1950). Mao pursued a radical Communist program that findamentally changed China. Efforts like the Great Leap Forwad, however, were economic disasters. Millions perished in the resulting famine. They seized control of Tibet. The economy stagnated under Communism in sharp contrast to the capitalist ecomomnies of the asian Tigers (Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore). The Cold War became more complicated after the Chinese-Soviet split (1961). The Chinese fought aar with Undia over the Himalian border (1962). Opposition prompted Mao to launch the Cultural Revolution which did enormous ecomomic damage. With the death of Mao, China began to rethink the relatioinship with America and the ecomnomic sysyem.. This raprochment was pursued by the Nixon Administration (1970s). Only with the introduction of free market reforms by Deng Xiaoping did the Chinese economy begin to grow and begin to bring prosperity to China. After the Cold War, the central question concerning China is if a free market economy will eventually led to the growth of a democratic government.
Fiedel Castro turned the democratic 26th of July Movemnent into the Communist take over of Cuba. Communism at the time looked like the wave of the future. It is difficult to assess Castro's motives. It seems likely that he saw it as way of improving the lot of the Cuban people. Like many in the developing world, this belief was a basically ideoligical ssumption rather than one arrived at after any real study. For Castro, Communism was also a way of obtaining badly needed foreign support for his regime. And it meant thatv he could avoid free elections. The Soviets were willing to finance Castro and his anti-American regime. Castro's policies essentially desimated the Cuban economy, converting one of the wealthiest Latin American countries into one of the poorest. This meant that extensive Soviet and Wast-block aud was needed. Castro sponored efforts to subvert other Latin American nations. After these efforts failed, Castro focused more on domestic policies. The disolution of the Soviet Union ended the massive subsidies, forcing wrenching adjustments.
The Soviets enginered a coup in Czechoslovakia (February 1948). Czechoslovakia was the last Eastern European country occupied by the Soviets that had any semblance of a democratic government. Stalin was not interested in bridge building. He wanted a reliable, compliant Czechoslovakia like the other satellite states of Eastern Europe. The Communists armed their supporters and staged street demonstragtions. They were supported by th police because the Ministry of the Interior was in the hands of the Communists. The army might have supoorted the Government if President Benes had decided to resist, but he believed that Soviet troops would intervene. Czecholslovakia at the time was almost entire surounded by Soviet satellites or Soviet occupied eastern Germanya nd Austria. He therefore yielded to the Communists and the country soon had a Stalinist Government. The Soviet takeover of Czecheslovakia in 1948 had many unintended consequences for Stalin. After the 20th Party Congress (1956), the capricious nature of Stalinist terror was regularized, but Czechoslovakia and the other Soviet Eastern Europeans satellites contunued to be governed as a police state, strictly controlling people's lives. Fear gradually diminished and social and artistic freedoms increased in Czechoslovakia during the 1960s. This led to increasing discussion of political freedom. The Prague Spring (Pražské jaro) refers to a brief period of political reform and liberalization began in Czechoslovakia (1968). Czech Communistl leader Alexander Dubcek who came to power January 5, 1968 initiated a series of liberal reforms. Dubchek replaced hard-line leader Antonin Novotny as First Secretary of the Czech Communist Party. In the end, the Soviet settled the debate--with Red Army tanks. The Prague Spring ended with and the invasion of 650,000 Soviet and Warsaw Pact troops (August 20, 1968). The period following the Prague Spring and Soviet invasion is known as the period of "normalization". The Soviets reinstalled the hard liners in power. They acted as apologists for the Soviet invasion. Any opposition to the reintroduction of Communist orthodoxy was quashed. The political, social, and economic life of the country stagnated. The first inkling of opposition to the Communist orthodoxy was Charter 77. More than 250 human rights activists signed the Charter 77 manifesto (January 1, 1977). They criticized the Communist government for failing to implement human rights provisions in several different commitments, including the United Nations \Charter an the Czechoslvakian constitution. Charter 77 was unsucessful in changing the nture of the Czech Communist government, but gradually police state tactics were softened, allowing a degree of discent and discussion as long as it was not to public. Gorbechov's reforms in the Sviet Union had repercussions in the Soviet Eastern European satellites. Communist leaders attempted to maintain Communist orthodoxy through police state actions. The Communist regimes were, however, clearly crumbling when Gorbechov signalled that the Red Army would not be used to keep the regimes in power. This essentially undercut the regimes because they had little domestic support. The Czech communist police violently broke up a peaceful pro-democracy demonstration and brutally beat many student participants (November 17, 1989). Charter 77 and other groups united to create the Civic Forum.
The popular support afforded the Civic Forum was such that the Czechoslavkian Communist Party, with virtually no popular support, essentially collapsed. Husak and party chief Milos Jakes resigned (December 1989). Havel was elected President (December 29). The transition was a starteling transformation and occured along with similar changes in East Germany. The lack of violence resulted in it being named the
Velvet Revolution.
Egypt had been a British protectorate. Thus during World War II there was considerable Egyptian support for the NAZIs, including the Young Officer's Movement. After the War the Soviets pursued a anti-colonial effort which attracted support in Egypt and some other Arab states. After the Egyptian defeat in the First Arab-Isteali War (1948-49), the Egyptains were interested in improving their military arms. The Young Officers seized power from King Farouk (1953) and Col. Nasser became a major figure in the Arab world. He seized the Suez Canal leading to the Suez Crisis (1956). Nasser wanted to modernize the economy and like other leaders in the develping leaders saw gradiose state ptojects such as those pursued in the Soviet Union as the best approach. After he negotiated arms deals with the Soviets, the Eisenhower Afdministration was reluctant to finance the Sawan High Dam. The Soviets agreed to do so. Nasser spent huge amounts on arms to defeat Isreael, nut failed to do do. Even more disasterous for Egypt, his statist approach saddeled Egypt with a huge infficient beauracracy that stifeled the econony and continued to do so even today.
Stalin after signing the Non-Aggression Pact with Hitler first invaded Poland (September 1939). His next target was Finland (November 1939). The Finns contrary to Stalin's expectations fought and proved a tough adversary. In the end the Soviets annexed Finnish borderlands, but the Finns remaiined independent. They joined the NAZIs in the invasion of the Soviet Union, butvrestricted theor participation to recovering Finnish territory. They eventually withfrew from the alliance with the NAZIs and had to turn more territory over to the Doviets. The Finns managed to maintain their independence and persued neutral policies during the Cold war. The Finns did not join NATO, but have joined the European Union.
The Cold War is often seen as a bi-polar struggle between East and West. The reality was much more complicated. France had been humbled by the Germans in World War II. After the War, France attempted to resurrect its colonial empire. This led to two failed colonial wars (Vietnam and Algeria). In search of an independent defence capability, France under General De Gaulle built an atomic bomb and pulled out of the NATO combined command. French leaders also sought to develop a new relationship with Germany and out of that effort the European Union has grown helping to fashion a new Europe. The new relationship with
Germany was a key aspect in the West's success in the Cold War. France's estrangement from the United States is more difficult to assess. The collapse of the Soviet threat has resulted in major shifts in the European American relationship.
The Cold War was to be won or lost in Germany. Although newspapers headlines followed dramatic events as they occurred around the world, it was in Germany that the outcome of the Cold War was determined. The country was even with deminished borders the powerhouse of Europe. The Red Army and Stalin's ruthlessness early owned settled the matter in the minds of most Germans. The question became moreone of whether America had the determination to support the Germans in the face of the Soviet threat. The Western Allied in 1949 began to allow the Federal Republic of German to administer the Western occupation zones and formally ended ocupation in 1955. The larger and more important economy allowed the FRG to dominate the East German Democratic Republic (DDR). The FRG worked to prevent other countries recognizing the DDR which was effctive through the 1960s. It also meant that the West Germans lost opportunities to pursue potentially beneficial commercial opportunities in Eastrn Europe and the Soviet Union. [Gray] This did not change until Arab countries began recognizing the DDR in the 1970s. By that time, Willy Brandt in the 1960s began his Ostpolitik, to build realtions with Eastern Europe and the United States.
Greece became an early battleground of the Cold War. The struggle for Greece began even before the Germans had wihdrawn. The British after the German withdrawl landed and orevented the partisans from seizing power. Eventually the partisans effort to use their military strength to seize power would lead to the Civil War (1944-49). The deteriorating situation in Greece was one of several contentious issues that were raised at the Potsdam Conference (1945). President Truman was less willing to accomodate Marshall Stalin than President Roosevelt had been. Truman was in fact disturbed by the Stalin's refusal to cooperate, especially in Poland. Difference on the future of Germany surfaced. Stalin was determined to impose heavy reparations on Germany. Stalin for his part accused the British of supporting a reactionary monarchy in Greece and a Fascist regime in Trieste. Greece was devestated by the War. The economy was near collsapse when the Allies arrived and having to fight a war against Soviet-backed guerrillas was beyond its capacity. Britain supported non-Communist forces in Greece against the Soviet-directed Communist guerillas. The combined impact of the cost of World War II and Atlee's Labour Government's socialist policies undermined the British Economy. The British had to retain war-time rationing long after the War ended. The Atlee Government announced it could not continue financial and military aid to the enatteled Greek government (February 24, 1947). At the same time, the communist guerillas were receiving military assistance from Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. Seeing it importasnt to prevent Greece from falling behind the developing Iron Curtain, President Trumsan decided to act and proclaimed the what has come to be known as the Truman Doctrine (March 12, 1947). He proclaimed thsat "it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure." The Soviet Union beginning with its policy in Poland had begun fighting the Cold War before the end of World War II (1944). This was the first mahor American action in the Cold War. It was in essence a declaration of war upon Soviet efforts to subvert democratic governments in Europe. The President backed up the tough language in his speech with massive military and economic assistance to both Greece and Turkey, another country under Soviet pressure.
Control of Hungary after World War II became a contest between two competng versions of Communism. Imre Nagy spent years as a refugee in the Soviet Union. As Minister of Agriculture after the War he introduced a popular land reform program. Hungary had been dominted by large landed estates. Nagy was elected Speaker of the Hungarian Parliament (1947). He gradualy emerged as a leading spokesman for those with a liberal vision of Communism. Prime Minister Mátyás Rákosi dominated Hungary and imposed an increasingly authoritarian regime. Rákosi was one of the brutal dictators that Stalin had imposed on the people of Eastern Europe. Rákosi faithfully carried out orders from Moscow. He conducted a dreadgul purge in Hungary beginning in 1950 and lasting until Stalin died in 1953. In a country of only about 10 million, 1.3 million were targetted , about half of which were arrested. Here I have seen varying estimates. There were 2,350 were exeuted. [Sebestyen] Rákosi was Jewish, even so he joined in Stalin's anti-Semetic campaign. Rákosi brutal rule was questioned from withn the Party and Rákosi purged the Party membership, expelling 200,000 for disloyalty or lack of sufficent loyalty. The death of Stalin and then Khruschev's De-Stalinization profram brought calls for reform in Hungary. A peaceful student protect was fired on by the security police, sparking the Hungarian Revolution.
Iceland maintained very close relations with the Unites States during the Cold War. Iceland accepted a United States offer to take responsibility for the country's defence (1951). This was the first American bilateral defense pact. The United Ststes established a military base at Keflavik which remained there until 2006. Iceland was of some significance in the Cold War because the Soviet Union initiated a major naval building program. The core of the Soviet Navy was its submarine force and potential for seveing North Atlantic trade routes. This led to a little known struggle of the Cold War that went on unseen beneath the surface of the Atlantic. The U.S. Navy responded with an important Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) program. Iceland as in World war II was essentially a floating aircraft carrier satride the North Atlantic trade routes. It also set astride the routes that Soviet submarines had to use to enter the Atantic and return to home ports. Thus the American presence in Iceland afforded the ability to monitor Soviet naval movements in the North Atlantic. The defense relation was controversial in Iceland. Some Icelanders saw the need for defense assistance and associated economic benefits. Other resented the foreign military presence. [Johannesson] The Soviets were mindful of the importasnce of Iceland. The issue of fishing limits ecploded (1952). Iceland restricted Britishing fishing in coastal waters. The British reponded with a ban on fish imports from Iceland--a major blow to a country dependent on fish exports. The Soviets interested in prying the Icelanders away from its allies, offered to trade oil for fish. The Soviets overnight became one of the largest buyers of Icelandic fish.
The United States and India are the two great multi-ethnic demoracies. It might seem that they would have been natural allies in the Cold War struggle with the totalitarian Soviet Union. This for a number of reasons did not occur. The United States had pressed Britain on the colonial question during World war II. And with the election of a Labour Government (1945), Britain proceeded rapidly with independence after the War. India became independent (1947). The Congress Party stabilized the political life of perhaps the most ethnically and culturally disparate country in the world. Unlike many other European colonies, India adopted a real democratic system after independence. Many were convinced that democracy could never work in such a large, diverse country. Free market economics was another matter. Nehru and other major Indian leaders after independence saw the United States as a basically colonial power and Western free market economics as inappropriate for the rapid development of the Indian economy. Many leaders instead saw Soviet socialism and central planning as the way to rapidly modernize the economy. The result was central decaded of economic stagnation. Indian leaders persued this economic program for several decades becuse of an lmost religious devotions to socialist ideology. The Soviets in turn courted India and provided funding for major projects. It is unclear why the Indias with their democratic system were not disturbed by Soviet totalitarianism and creation of a colonial empire in Eastern Europe. It appears that Soviet anti-colonial retoric was more important than actual Soviet policies. India was a participant in the Non-Aligned Movement which essentially became afoil for Soviet foreign policy. Only with the fall of the Soviet Union and the exposure of its economic failure did India begin its free market reforms that has so transformed its economy. India's Cold War policies were complicated by the wars with Pakistan over Kasmir and a war with China over the Himalayan border.
Reza Shah supressed Kurdish resistance to his nationalist policies and establish a defined frontier duting the 1930s. He was also an admirer of the NAZIs andcracial policies. It is at this time that the name of the country was changed from Persia to Iran to emphazize reputed Aryan roots. The Shah's pro-NAZI orientation prompted the British to intervene and replace him with his son-- Mohammad Reza Shah. The Soviets occupied the north and the British the South. Iran during the Warc was the primary conduit for American Lend Lease aid to the Soviets. The Communist Party had been banned by Reza Shah. The party reorganized as the Trudeu (Communist) Party. It received support from the Soviets. After the War the Soviets were relutant to withdraw from Iran. Reza Shah beca,e a firm ally of the United States in the developing Cold War. Iran joined the Central Treaty Alliance (CENTO) and its economic off-shoot, the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD). With the earnings from the developing oil industry, Reza Shah financed a modernization program which disturned many traditionalist Muslims. He refused to allow any democratic reforms which could have committed the middle-class to his government. The Savak, a secret police, suppressed political dissent.
Italy was a founding member of the Axis. America and Britain occupied Italy, but the oocupation took on a different character than the occupation of Germany. Italy joined the Allies in the war against Germany. Most Italians looked on the Americans as lineratots which was not the case in Germany. After the War, America and Britain sought to stop the spread of Communism and Soviet expansion. The Soviets even before the end of the War began seizing control of the countries they occupied. The Allies were unable to do much in the countries occupied by the Red army. Italy was a different matter. The Coominist Party in Italy as in other countries in Western Europe had gained considerable stature by their role in the Resistance. This meant that the Party might gain power in democratic elections. King Victor Emmanuel III formally abdicated (May 1946). His son became King Umberto II, but the the country decided by referndum for a republic (June 1946). De Gasperi formed Italy's first post-War government (May 1946). He excluded the Communists and their allies such as the the Socialists, from his government. The Vatican and the conservative south supported him as did the United States. The Cold War began to influence Italian politics soon after the War. visited the United States (January 1947). He received commitments for $150 million in aid. The next parlimentary elections were scheduled for 1948. This would prove to be the best chance for the Communists to seize power. They had the prestige from the Resistance, economic conditions were still poor, and the attoricities of Soviet Communism werec still not widely known. U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall made it clkear that aid would be cancelled if the Communists and Socialists won the election. The first election campaign of the new Republic was heated. The United States provided covert support in the way of financing for the Christian Democrats and their Liberal, Social Democratic, and Republican allies. The Christian Democrats ran an anti-Communist campaign. They helped organize civic committees throughout the country to get the anti-Communist vote to the poll. An estimate 92 percent of Italian voters turned out (April 1948). The Christian Democrats with Church backing won more than 48 percent of the vote and more than half the seats in Parliament. The Communist-Socialist alliance won 31 percent of the vote. They polled majorities only in the “Red Belt” (the central regions of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and Umbria). The former Resistance fighters had hoped to win the election and establish a left-wing government. It is unclear if they would have moved to establish a police state as in Easter Europe. The relations with Moscow are unclear. After the elections, Communist Party leader Togliatti, was shot by a ight-wing fanati on the steps of Parliament (July 1948). Togliatti managed to survive, but the assassination attempt set off strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Communist activists in the north (especially Genoa and Tuscany) went beyond strikes abd protests seemed to launching a revolution. They comandered the street car ines and took over key communication centers. Togliatti and Communist Party leaders tried to calm the situation. Gradually the violence subsided. The Christian Democrats accused the Communists of attempting to overthrow a democratic government. This charge dogges the Communist Party for years. Many Communists involved in the Ressistance had retauned their weapons after the War. Many had an idealized image of revolution. The Communist bleadership pursued a theme of an “Italian road to socialism”. They insisted that they rejected violent insurrection and promoted progressive reforms. The labor movement in Italy fractured along the same lines as the political parties. There were three different labor federations. The “red” (Communist and Socialist) federation was the Italian General Confederation of Labor. The “white” (Catholic and Christian Democratic) federation was the Italian Confederation of Workers’ Trade Unions. There was also a moderate Italian Labour Union. The United States led the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949). Italy was a charter member of NATO. As in the rest of Western Europe, a central factor in the Cold War would be the post-War economic success of Italy with a capitalist economy.
Japan like Germany began the Cold War as an occupied country. There were, however, some basic differences. The Japanese unlike the Germans never accepted the war guilt and responsibility for tremendous war crimes. The Japanese also fid not surrender unconditionally--the Emperor was not arrested and tried as aar criminal. Also the country was not divided into Allied occupation zones. The United States was solely responsible for the occupation. Actually this had been a major reason for the Japanese surrender. The Soviets were rapidly moving through Manchuria and down the Korean Peninsula. The Japanese realized that a Soviet invasion of the Home Islands might result. The Japanese Government had suppressed the Communists and a Soviet invasion would mean the inevitable introduction of Communism. The American occupation meant change, but not Communism. General MacArthur oversaw te occupation. He intrioduced a new democratic cinstitution, gave women the right to vote, made the Emperor a constitutional figurehead, allowed the organization of labor unions, promoted a free press, and made other major changes. The American occupation was one of the great success stories which influenced the outcome of the Cold War. Japan was transformed from a militarist, authoritarian scociety to a modern democratic nation with a vibrabt capitalist economy. The strongly statified society which had been unraveling with the military's rise to power was also transformed. The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) dominated post-War elections. The Communists who were allowed to organize and achieved some influence in labor unions were essentually defeated by the economic successes of Japan's capitalist society. Japan while accepting American military protection and allowing continued American use of bases in Japan, did not participate militarily in the Cold War. There were Constitutional prohibitions on war, although Japan did build a competent military for self defense.
Malaya and Singapore had been British colonies before World War II. The Malays and Chinese (mostly in Singapore) were shocked at the ease with which the Japanese defeated the British who had seemed so over wealming powerful before the War. The British reoccupied Malaya and Singapore aftter the War. The Japanese occupation and resistance to it, however, growing nationalisr sentiment, especially among the Malays. The British because of the damage to the war damage to their economy and austerity at home, partly caused by the Labour Government's socialist policies, was forced to withdraw from many Cold War conflicts such as aiding the Greek Government. The British decided, however, to make a tand in Malaya. Britain committed itself to an expensice and protracted struggle against a Communist insurgency in Malaya. Thie British pursued this effort without American support. Primeminister Attlee framed what came to be called the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) as part of Soviet attempts to use the local Communist party to support its world-wide expansion efforts. During the Cold War era when the Western democracies were indeed threatened by Soviet expansionism, the British claims were largely accepted. Scholars now see the Ememergency as a largely localized effort conducted by a variety of not very well coordinated disperate groups, of which the Communists were a major part. Geography limited the ability if the Soviets to support and supply the insurgent forces.
Poland because of its geographic location became the epicenter for the Cold War. For without a compliant Communist Poland, a Communist East German regime was untenable. Unfortunately for the Soviets, Poland proved the most difficult Eastern European satellite country to control--in sharp contrast to a slavishly compliant East Germany. It is interesting to specuale as to just why Poland proved so difficult for the Soviets to dominate. Poland was the only Eastern European satellite that had until the 18th century been a major European power. With the Polish partitions of the late-18th century, the Polish nation disappeared from the maps of Europe. Poland proved difficult fot the Tsarist regime to control. What did not disappear was the Polish Catholic Church which became the repository for Polish nationaism for three centuries. Poland was able to emerge from Russian control after World waR I, but was invaded and carved up by the NAZIs and their Soviet ally (1939). Stalin spoke derivisely of the Vatican, asking how many divisions the pope commanded. In fact, it was a Polish pope in the 1980s that would play a critical role in the unraveling of the Soviet empire that Stalin constructed in Eastern Europe.
The Red Army occupied Romania (autumn 1944). There was relatively little support for Communism in Romania. but as the Soviets controlled the country and arrested individuals who critivised their presence, the Communists quickly seized control of the country. The pro-Communist government of Petru Groza seized control. took over power. The World War II dictator Marshal Ion Antonescu was tried and executed (June 1946). The Government forcef King Michael I to abdicate. Groza oversaw a rigidly Stalinist regime and any one expressing any opposition to the regime was arrested. Many were shot without trials.
Romania became a compliant Soviet sattelite. The Government instituted Soviet-style policies: nationalisation and collectivisation. The state took over the operation of all industrial entreprises, mines, banks and transport facilities and operated them on the basis of a centrally planned economy. The state prepared 5-year plans as part of an industrial development program. The first Five Year Plan was announced (1951). Romania under Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej began to move away from slavishly following Soviet foreign policies (1960s). Nicolae Ceausescu who succeeded him maintained this independent foreign policy.
The Romanian Communists, however, did not change domestic policies of state control and industrial development. Romania before World War II had been a largely agrarian country and exporter of natural resources. Communist policies favored the growth of heavy industry resulting in the rapid growth of cities. Ceausescu attempted to accelerate Romania's industrial development and a number of grandiose show-case projects. Major investments were made in industry, extensuvely funded by Western loans. The problem was that much of the industrial development was not well planned or administered. Despite the investment the Communist-era industrial concerbs were inefficent and uncompetitive. Often the cost of production exceeded what the output could be sold for if buyers could be found aT all. In addition virtually no importance was assigned to pollution from the new factories. The inefficency of Romanian industry made it impossible for Romania to pay off its accumulating national debt by exporting. Ceausescu's answer to Romania's growing economic problems was a program of national austerity (1980s). The standard of living for the Romanian people fell precipitously. Romania was forced to export what did sell--its agricultural production and coal and oil. But because of inattention, the agricultural sector had declined. There was thus less to export and a much larger urban production to feed. The result was domestic food and fuel shortages. The Securitate (the Communist secret police) vigorously supressed discent. Ceausescu ignored the growing problems and instead sponsored megalomaniac construction projects in an effort to give his regime an appearance of success. There was also an effort to create a leadership cult for Ceausescu. His writings were published in guge print runs. Despite the national austerity ptogram, Ceausescu, his family, and close supporters lived in luxury. Ceausescu ruled Romania with an iron fist for 25 years. One Romanian historian describes the period, "Ceausescu's regime slowly dragged the Romanians into an economic, social and moral deadlock. All these years were dominated by lies, corruption, terror, violation of human rights, and isolation from the Western world." After Gorbechev made it clear that the Soviet Union would not use force in Eastern Europe, Communist regimes began to collapse (1989). Ceausescu attempted to resist the process. A disturbance in a crowd Ceausescu was speaking to sparked a nation-wide uprising (December 1989). Ceausescu fate was sealed when the Romanian army joined the national uprising. Ceausescu fled Bucarest. He was soon arrested. The new provisional government tried and executed him and his wife (December 25, 1989).
The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) is commonly see as the dress rehersal for World War II. NAZI and Fascist assistance played a major role in Franco's victory. Franco at the onset of the War provided some assistance to the NAZIs, but althhough pressed by Hitler did not enter the War. Nor did he participae in the Holocaust. Thousands of Jews were able to escape the Holocaust through Spain. Franco did commit one Spanish diviision to the Eastern Front. After the War, it was unclear what the Allies would do about Spain. In the end, Spain was shunned and not allowed to join the United Nations. Gradually policies softened. Spain was allowed to join both the United Nations and NATO.
Kemal Ataturk helped estanlish a secularist Turkish republic. He forced the Allies to rengotiate the first Workd War I peace treaty. He helped quash Kurdish resistance and a definitive frontier. During World War II both the NAZIs and Allies attempted to draw Turkey into the war in their side. The Turks with pant-Turkish anbitions were tempted to join the NAZIs, but memories of World War I as well as distrust of the NAZIs helped bring about a sober decesion to stay out of the War. After the War the Turks had a border with the Soviet Union. Control of the Dardenelles was a long-term Soviet objective. Turkey along with Greece were the two countries that the American the Truman Doctrine was designed to assist..
Britain at the onset of World War II was one of the great powers. The NAZI victories over the British and French radically changed the world power balance. The D-Day invasion (June 1944) was the last time Britain participated in world events on an equal footing with the United States. With the defeat of the Germans and Japanese, it was clear that it would be the two super-powers, the United States and the Soviet Union with their massive industrial and scientific capabilities that would determine the future direction of Europe and other countries. Britain's role in the Cold War should not be underestimated. It was former Prime Minister Winston Chutchill that first articulated the developing struggle in a speech delivered at President Truman's invitaion at Fulton College in Independence, Missouri. Churchill's electoral defeat after VE Day meant that Britain's initial Cold war policy would be led by the Labour Party--a Socialist party. While it was Americxan power that shielded Western Europe from Soviet domination, the British contribution was important if not vital. From the beginning the cornerstone of NATO was Anglo-Military military cooperation. Here Primeminister Bevin played a critical role in the creation of NATO. One author maintains East-West tension, was often conditioned, and in its early stages accelerated, by Britain's continuing world-wide interests and influence. [Greenwood] The leading political figures in post-War Britain's postwar history (Churchill, Bevin, Eden, Macmillan and Thatcher) played important roles in the Cold War.
Our discussion of the Cold War is primarily based on a chronological flow of events. This of necesity condenses the Cold War into its essence--a struggle between the Soviet Union and America. America's European allies played critical roles in the Cold War. but without America, Wesrern Europe could not have resisted the Red Army and Soviet domination. After World War II, Europe was devestated. Even Britain which played a major role in winning the War was bankrupt. Only the United States had the capability of saving Western Europe from Soviet domination. After World War I, the United Sates withdrew from Europe. President Truman was determined thatv America would not repeat this mistake. And thus from a very early point America made a commitment bto resist Soviet aggression. The turning pont came with the Siviet takeover of democratic Czechoslovakia (1948). The resukt was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) which committed the UJnites States ,ilitarily to the defense of Western Europe. This was followed by the Berlin Airlift (1948-49). The American effort to dave Berlin from Soiviet control proved to be the turning point in the struggle for Germany. And it would be Germny that would determine the outcome of the Cold war. While the Cold War began in Europe, it gradually spread to the developing world (Drica, Asia, and Latin America). At the onset, nuch if Africa and Asia were European collonies. And here the Cold War took on a different character. And the Soviets positioned themselves a a great opponent of European colonialsm, while at the same time carving out a huge Eastern European empire. One critism of America is that during the Cold War, the United States was too willing to deal with dictators. That is a valid issue and one that some HBC readers have possed. The appeal of socialist tgeory and Soviet style development resulted in many developing countries rejecting democracy and free enterprise and adopting socialist statist sollutions which led to decades of ecomomic stagnation and authoritarian rule.
The Allies during World War II shifted support from the Royalist Chetniks to Tito's Soviet-backed Partisans. A great deal of weaponry and supplies were delivered to the Partisans. Yugoslavia was the only country liberated by the resistance movement during the War. Despite Westen aid , after the NAZI surrender (May 1945), Tito set up a Stalinist-style peope's republic in Yugoslavia. He took a hard-line attitude toward the West. He instituted a police state, thousands died in concentration camps, and democratic parties were suppressed. British and American planes were shot down along the border. While Tito set up a Stalinist police state, it was different than in the rest of Eastern Europe because he was not a puppet installed by Stalin. Gradually Tito became uneasy about Stalin's efforts to gain control in Yugoslavia as he had done in the rest of Eastern Europe. There were also economic problems. The Soviets as they were doing in the rest of the East Bloc were deivering low quality goods at very high pfrices. Yugoslav state-owned companies were unable to obtain needed equipment. Officials in other East Bloc countries did not dare complain about such matters. Stalin was increasingly concerned about Tito's independence. Stalin did not permit discesion in the Soviet Union or within the Eact Bloc satellite countries. Hr saw Tito's independence at setting a bad example. Red Army units were distpacted to the borer. For awhile it looked like a Soviet invasion would occur. Soviet propaganda charged that Tito wash "pursuing an unfriendly policy to the Soviet Union" abd called Tito a Trostkyite. This was virtually the worst thing you could say about someone in the Soviet Emipre. (Stalin had Trosty killed--an ice pick through the skull. This of course was not lost on Tito. Stalin cut off trade with Yugoslavia and incouraged dissent with the Yugoslav Communist Party. The Soviets had the Yugoslav Communist Party expelled from the Cominform. Tito turned to the West. He accepted U.S. Marshall Plan assistance (1950). Tito also founded the Non-Aligned Movement.
Deery, Phillip. "Malaya, 1948: Britain's Asian Cold War?" Journal of Cold War Studies )Winter 2007) Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 29-54.
Gray, William Glenn. Germany's Cold War: The Global Campaign to Isolate East Germany, 1949-69 (University of North Carolina), 251p.
Greenwood, Sean. Britain and the Cold War, 1945-91.
Hudson, G.F. The Hard and Bitter Peace: World Politics Since 1945 (Praeger: New York, 1967), 319p.
Johannesson, Gudni Th. "U.S.-Icelandic defense relations during and after the Cold War," Naval War College Review (Autumn 2004).
Sebestyen, Victor. Twelve Days: The Story of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution (Pantheon, 2006), 340p.
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