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war and social upheaval: The Cold War country trends Italy
The Cold War: Italy
Figure 1.--The Communist Party and Socialist allies after World War II had enormous prestige throughout Western Europe. They had always had a strong following among urban workers and peasants, but their role in the resistance to the Fascists and NAZIs had earned them a wider appeal than ever before. It looked after the War that they might win power in democratic elections. The Communist Party in Italy was particularly strong. Their best chance was in 1948. While they failed, the Communists remained an important political power throughout the Cold War. This press photograph was taken May 23, 1976. The wireservice caption read, "Checking political scene: Three 18-year old Itlian boys inspect political posters on special boards set up by the Rome city government for the June 20 Italian general elections. Remains of Marcellus Thesater and colums of the Temple of Apollo are in backgroiund. Voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 last year."
Italy was a founding member of the Axis. America and Britain occupied Italy, but the oocupation took on a different character than the occupation of Germany. Italy joined the Allies in the war against Germany. Most Italians looked on the Americans as liberatots which was not the case in Germany. After the War, America and Britain sought to stop the spread of Communism and Soviet expansion. The Soviets even before the end of the War began seizing control of the countries they occupied. The Allies were unable to do much in the countries occupied by the Red army. Italy was a different matter. The Communist Party in Italy as in other countries in Western Europe had gained considerable stature by their role in the Resistance. This meant that the Party might gain power in democratic elections. King Victor Emmanuel III formally abdicated (May 1946). His son became King Umberto II, but the the country decided by referndum for a republic (June 1946). De Gasperi formed Italy's first post-War government (May 1946). He excluded the Communists and their allies such as the the Socialists, from his government. The Vatican and the conservative south supported him as did the United States. The Cold War began to influence Italian politics soon after the War. visited the United States (January 1947). He received commitments for $150 million in aid. The next parlimentary elections were scheduled for 1948. This would prove to be the best chance for the Communists to seize power. They had the prestige from the Resistance, economic conditions were still poor, and the attoricities of and economic failure of Soviet Communism were still not widely known. U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall made it clear that aid would be cancelled if the Communists and Socialists won the election. The first election campaign of the new Republic was heated. The United States provided covert support in the way of financing for the Christian Democrats and their Liberal, Social Democratic, and Republican allies. The Christian Democrats ran an anti-Communist campaign. They helped organize civic committees throughout the country to get the anti-Communist vote to the poll. An estimate 92 percent of Italian voters turned out (April 1948). The Christian Democrats with Church backing won more than 48 percent of the vote and more than half the seats in Parliament. The Communist-Socialist alliance won 31 percent of the vote. They polled majorities only in the �Red Belt� (the central regions of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and Umbria). The former Resistance fighters had hoped to win the election and establish a left-wing government. It is unclear if they would have moved to establish a police state as in Eastern Europe. The relations with Moscow are unclear. After the elections, Communist Party leader Togliatti, was shot by a right-wing fanati on the steps of Parliament (July 1948). Togliatti managed to survive, but the assassination attempt set off strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Communist activists in the north (especially Genoa and Tuscany) went beyond strikes abd protests seemed to launching a revolution. They comandered the street car ines and took over key communication centers. Togliatti and Communist Party leaders tried to calm the situation. Gradually the violence subsided. The Christian Democrats accused the Communists of attempting to overthrow a democratic government. This charge dogged the Communist Party for years. Many Communists involved in the Ressistance had retained their weapons after the War. Many had an idealized image of revolution. The Communist bleadership pursued a theme of an �Italian road to socialism�. They insisted that they rejected violent insurrection and promoted progressive reforms. The labor movement in Italy fractured along the same lines as the political parties. There were three different labor federations. The �red� (Communist and Socialist) federation was the Italian General Confederation of Labor. The �white� (Catholic and Christian Democratic) federation was the Italian Confederation of Workers� Trade Unions. There was also a moderate Italian Labour Union. The United States led the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949). Italy was a charter member of NATO. As in the rest of Western Europe, a central factor in the Cold War would be the post-War economic success of Italy with a capitalist economy.
While little good can be said of the 12 years of NAZI rule in Germany, Italy is significantly different. Although it is not popular to say so, there were, along with the many negative aspects, possitive impacts of Missolini's Fascist movement. It is said that Mussolini made the trains run on time, but in fact there was much more to Fascist rule in Italy. Fascism was in fact a factor for modernization, especially for southern Italy which in the 1920s was still almost feudal. The excesses of the NAZIs were in part limited by the fact that Mussolini was not the homicidal maniac that Hitler was and the that the Italian Fascists were not as committed to the same racist doctrine that the NAZIs persued. Programs like eugenics, Lensensorn, euthenasia, and Eindeutschung, were never persued by the Itlalian Fascists. Here the fact that Mussolini never dared confront the Church as Hitler did, prevented the excesses of the NAZIs. Mussolini remained neutral at the beginning of the War. He was, however, dazzeled by the military success of the NAZIs and joined his friend and Fascist ally in 1940 with an invasion of France, only after France had been essentially destroyed by the Wehrmacht. He was afraid of missing out on the spoils. Mussolini without conferring with Hitler rushed to invade Greece. It proved to be a disaster as was the Italian offensive in North Africa against the British. The Italian Navy fights a series of naval actions with the Royal Navy and is crippled. Italy was, despite Mussolini's boasts, was unprepared for war and without the industrial base for modern war. Mussolini had to ask Hitler for assistance. The Italians lose Libya (November 1942) and then Sicily (July 1943). The Italian people turned on Mussolini as the illconceived War turned against the Axis. The Communists, Scocialist and Popular Party played a role in the resistance. The communist
party was present in the first governement after the liberation, led by the
Alcide De Gasperi. In 1948 took place a strong election campaign and the
communist party lost the election. The winner was the Democrazia Cristiana (DC)
the new name taken by the former popular party (PPI).
On 3 February 1991, the PCI decided that it is disbanding. A new progressive
party was founded, that didn't join the Communist International. A dissident
group refounded a communist party that since 2008 has no representatives in the
parliament.The Fascist Grancd Council arrests Mussolini. The Italian Fascists were certainly not the friends of Jews, but the Holocaust in Italy was forced on Italy only after the NAZIs occupied Italy and freed Mussolini (September 1943). He was now a pawn of the NAZIs. Mussolini tried to set up a puppet state in Northern Italy. The Allies took Rome (June 1944). Mussolini and his mistress atvthe end of the war attempt to flee with retreating Germam were captured and executed by Italian Communist partisans (April 1945). Hitler in his Berlin bunker saw photographs of Mussolini being strung up by his heels.
Italy was a founding member of the Axis. America and Britain occupied Italy, but the oocupation took on a different character than the occupation of Germany. Italy joined the Allies in the war against Germany. Most Italians looked on the Americans as liberatots which was not the case in Germany. Many Italians had relatives in America or memnbers of the family who made money in America and returned home. After the War, America and Britain sought to stop the spread of Communism and Soviet expansion. The Soviets even before the end of the War began seizing control of the countries they occupied. The Allies were unable to do much in the countries occupied by the Red army. Italy was a different matter.
The Partito Comunista Italiano (PCI) was founded by radical dissidents of the Italian Socialist Party's left wing (1921).
The growing influence of the Socialists and Communists after World War I was a factor in the rise of Fascism. The PCI had different factions. Moscow supported the Or-dine nuovo group led by A. Gramsci based in the northern industrial city of Turin. The dominant group was at first led by A. Bordiga. The PCI refused to cooperate with the larger Socialist Party in resisting the rise of Fascism. Moscow helped Gramsci and his associates to take control of the PCI (1923-24). The Fascists moved against the Socialists and especially the Communists, supressing both unions and peasant organizations which were the core of the Party's strength. Benito Mussolini's Fascist government outlawed the Communists along with other political parties, although the PCI was already in tatters (1926). The PCI went underground. They organized, but did not actively opose the Fascists who were not as ruthless in suppressing the Communists as Hitler's NAZI Party. Mussolini in fact began his political career as a Socialist. While the Fascists supressed Communist activities, unlike in NAZI Germahny, they were less effective in changing the political orientation of urban and rural workers who contunued to harbor Counnunist and Socialist loyalties. The PCI was confused along with Communist parties around the world when Stalin signed the Non-aggression Pact with Hitler (August 1939). Suddenly Hitler as soon Mussolini were allied with Stalin who they idealized. This of course changed when Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. The PCI did not initiate resistance operations of any significance. The PCI played an important role in the Italian Resistance in World War II, mostly after the Allied invasion made resistance more feasible (September 1943). Partisan units aided the Allies in the drive north and were particularly active in the north in the final months of the War, taking heavy casualties. It was a Partisan unit that stopped a German convoy carrying Mussolini and some of his ministers and associates out of Italy. He was then shot on the orders of the Communist-controlled National Liberation Committee (April 1945). The PCI as in other countries in Western Europe had gained considerable stature by their role in the Resistance. This meant that the Party might gain power in democratic elections. After the war it at first joined in coalition governments and was successful in the 1946 election, Italy's first democratic election since the Fascist take over. Their best chance to take control of Italy would be the 1948 election.
Republic Declared
King Victor Emmanuel III's reign was badly tarnished by his association with Mussolini and the Fascists. He had held Mussolini at arms length and even more so the Germans, but he had not openly resisted them until the Allies invaded (September 1943). The King formally abdicated (May 1946). His son briefly became King Umberto II. As promised, however, a national refendum was held. The country in a highly regional outcome, narrowly voted to abolish the monarchy and create a republic (June 1946).
First Post-War Elections (1946)
The Cold War began to influence Italian politics soon after the War. Three political parties contested the 1946 election: the Christian Democrats (Democrazia Cristiana--DC, the new name for the former Popular Party--PPI), Italian Socialist Party (PSI), and the Italian Communist Party (PCI). Each party ran a separate slate of candidates. The Vatican and the conservative south supported the DC as did the United States. The DC led by Alcide De Gasperi won a plurality.
De Gasperi formed a unity givernment with the PSI and the PCI receiving some ministerial posts (May 1946). The PCI leader Palmiro Togliatti became minister of Justice. The United States providing substabntial levels of assistance was uneasy with the Communist role. De Gasperi decided to exclude the PCI and PSI from government (May 1947). Similar developments occured in France.
De Gasperi visited the United States (January 1947). He received commitments for $150 million in aid.
The economy was colapsing even befoew the Allies landed (September 1943). With the end of World War II, Italy was in ruin. Unlike France, the Germans had not withdrawn and retreated to the Reuch borders.
The Allies had to fight a ptotracted campaign al the way north from the toe of the hr Italian boot to the Po Valley. In addition to the battle damage, the Germans destroyed what was left of civilan infrastructure as they retrated. Here the putpose wa sto create problems that the Allies had to deal with,complicating the drive north. There was a vengence factor as the Germans felt betrayed by the Italians switching sides. Italy had not been a prosperous country even before the War, especially the south. And now much of the country was turned into rubbel, both villages and cities. The economynwas essentially destroyed. And with the end of the Mussolini's Fascist regime, the entire Italian Government had to be reconstituted. The new government had very limited resources to deal with the enormous problems. The War and German festruction teams had destroyed Italy's transportation system and infrastructure. A great deal of housing was destroyed. The Banca d'Italia added inflation to the ecomomic problems. A degree of infkation was unavoidable as the wage and price controls of the Fascist regime were ended. The amount of currency in circulation had expanded some 18 fold between 1938 and 1945 but the Fascist price controls had prevented this from affecting prices. It did, however impair prodyction. Data shows that the the GDP fell sharply. [Federico and Malanima] The poertion of agriculture in gross output was still substantial. Many Italians were influenced by Communist oromises. The failure of Eastern European Communist economies was nit yet apparent. This affected the willingness of entrptrneurs to invest. The economy quickly recovered after 1948. The major factors appear to be the American Marshall Plam and the rapid Westernn European recovery led by the German Economic Miracke which offered good payiig factory jobs for Italian workers. The new governments, led by the centre party, the Christian Democrats (CD), proved capable of supporting economic growth.
Critical 1948 Elections
The next parlimentary elections were scheduled for 1948. This would prove to be the best chance for the Communists to seize power. They had the prestige from the Resistance, economic conditions were still poor, and the attrocities and economic failure of Soviet Communism were still not widely known. The PSI and the PCI had been excluded from government even though they had received more votes than the DC. They decided to unite to form the Popular Democratic Front (FDP). Given the 1946 results, it looked like they would win the elction. The elections were strongly influenced by the developing Cold War conflict--especially the Soviet seizure of power throughout Eastern and Central Europe. The Soviet-launched coup in Czechoslovakia made clear Soviet objectives (February 1948). The United States was increasingly alarmed about Soviet intentions and feared that the Soviet-funded PCI and PSI allies would win the elction and lead Italy into the Soviet orbit.
U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall made it clear that aid would be cancelled if the FDP coaoltion won the election. The second general election campaign of the new Republic was heated as the stakes were so high. The United States provided covert support in the way of financing for the Christian Democrats and their Liberal, Social Democratic, and Republican allies. It was a hard-fought campaign. The DC ran an anti-Communist campaign. They helped organize civic committees throughout the country to get the anti-Communist vote to the poll. An estimate 92 percent of Italian voters turned out (April 1948). The CDC with Church backing won more than 48 percent of the vote and more than half the seats in Parliament. The FDP Communist-Socialist alliance won a disappoibnting 31 percent of the vote. They polled majorities only in the 'Red Belt' (the industrialized central regions of Emilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and Umbria). The former Resistance fighters had hoped to win the election and establish a left-wing government and were deeply disappointed.
Communist Uprising (July-August 1948)
A right-wing fanatic after the elections shot Communist Party leader Togliatti on the steps of Parliament (July 1948). Togliatti managed to survive, but the assassination attempt set off strikes and demonstrations all over the country. Communist activists in the north (especially Genoa and Tuscany) went beyond strikes avd protests seemed to launching a revolution. They comandered the street car ines and took over key communication centers. Togliatti and Communist Party leaders tried to calm the situation. Gradually the violence subsided. The Christian Democrats accused the Communists of attempting to overthrow a democratic government. This charge dogged the Communist Party for years. Many Communists involved in the Ressistance had retained their weapons after the War. Many had an idealized image of revolution. The Communist leadership pursued a theme of an �Italian road to socialism�. They insisted that they rejected violent insurrection and promoted progressive reforms. It is unclear if the Communists would have moved to establish a police state as in Eastern Europe. Authors answer to this question is, however, more a reflection of their political orientation than actual ecidence. The relations with Moscow are unclear.
Labor Movement
The labor movement in Italy fractured along the same lines as the political parties. There were three different labor federations. The �red� (Communist and Socialist) federation was the Italian General Confederation of Labor. The �white� (Catholic and Christian Democratic) federation was the Italian Confederation of Workers� Trade Unions. There was also a moderate Italian Labour Union.
NATO (1949)
After the Soviets seized control of democrativ Czrechoslovakia (1948). The United States moved to gusarantee the democracies of Wester Europe that it would resist furthur Soviet expansion. The United States led the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949). Italy was a charter member of NATO.
Italy held another parlimentarian general election (1953). The 1948 general election was perhaps the most important Cold war election in Europe. It left the center-left Christian Democrats (CD) in contol and prevented a Communist seizure of power The Popular Front (Communist and Socialist alliance) had come far short of what they expected. They continued, however, to be the principal opposition to the DC and challenged again in the 1953 general election to choose the Second Republican Parliament. It was a test for the CD centrist coalition headed by Prime Minister Alcide De Gasperi. The socialist ideal still resonated with many Italians. The Soviet take overs in Eastern Europe does not seem to have affected the Popular Front's supporters. The extent of Stalinist crimes, the Gulag, and economic failure was not well known in the West and the Left was in a state of denial about the reports that had reached the left. Domestic issues, however, would determine the election. A complication was what the oppocition called the DC Scam Law. This probably lost the DC some votes, but the PF failed to capitalize on this. An important factor was the economy. The economy was benfefitting from the generalpost-War economic revovery. The Italian Economic Niraccle had begun, but still in an early phase. This probably explains why the PF did not gaun support, but was not strong enough to undermine PF support. the elections were held on Sunday June 7, 1953. The PF did well in the orivinces just north of Rome. Almost all the rest of the country supported the CD government. This election, the Italian Economic Miracle and the relevations of the Soviet 20th Party Congress as well as Soviet ctiins in Hungary, Poland, and Czechislovakia would colasese to make Italy a firm, if somewhat unstble, member of NATO and the Democratic West. The smaller majority of the ruling coalition led to aseries of short term prime ministers, weakening the office. The Communist Party, despite all of what we know about Communism has never disappeared from the Itlian poliyicl scene. The CD lost over 40 sears, but the ruling coalition remained firmly in power. The Popular Front voye remzimed virtually unchanged at aboutv35 oercent of the electorate.
Eurocommuism
Commiunist parties even in the West were controlled by Moscow. This control was not, however, as absolute as in the countries occupied by the Rd Army and the NKVD could ruthlessly enforce obedience. The Communists had wide-spread support in Italy, both for ideological reasons and because they develioed an image of competence and honesty in the cities where they won municipal elections. Italy was also a very Catholic country. The wives of Party members often attended mass and had their children do first Communion. Thus the Party had difficulty winning a majority in naional ekections. Particulrly damaging was the opposition of the Church and charges of control by Moscow and its atheist policies. After Stalin's death and the 20th Party Congress in the Soviet Union criticizing Stalin, Palmiro Togliatti tried to dissociate the PCI from the Soviet Union (1956). Soviet repression in Eastern Europe were not helpful to the Italian an other Western European Communists. The brutal Soviet repression of theHungarian Revolution was particularly damaging. It even gave some Comminist stalwarts second thoughts. Enrico Berlinguer, chosen as party leader, became the leading proponent of Eurocommunism (1972). He had to contend with Soviet repression of Czechoslovakia. The PCI after the impossion of the Soviet Union and fall of Eastern European Communist regimes, decided that aeset in Italy was needed.
20th Party Congress
Communists around the world, including Western Europe and the United States, were convinced that the Soviet Union was building aorker's paradise on earth. Sovet propaganda harpened on this theme--happy and well fed pesant and workers. It was not ture of course, but the NKVD effectively closed off Soviet society and the eastern European satellite countries. The information that did leak out was simply rejected by the Communist Party faithfull and theur bed rick belief in the furure socialst utopia. The 20th Party Congress changed this. Soviet Primer Nikita Khrushchev in a secret speech admitted that Stlin had committed terrible crimes. He did not come close to evealing theenormity of those crimes, but he left no doubts thart terrible attricities were committed. Khrushchev's speechcame in a secret forum at the end of the Congress. Foreifn Party members were among the audience. And the Secret Speech was soon common knowledge throughout the Communist world. Communists could no longer claim that terrible crimes were not committed. The new talking points became that stalin was an aberation and Stalinism wa not really Communism. The only problem with that is that any where the Communists took power, not only were crimes committed anbd baic rights denied, but economic failure follow. In Italy the Communists insisted that they weredifferent abd not controlled by Moscow. The Comnunists would bever, however, achieve the popular vote that they commanded in 1948 and 1953.
As in the rest of Western Europe, a central factor in the Cold War would be the post-War economic success. Germany, France, the Low Courtries, aswell as Italy experienced unprecedented economic growth. Wages rose to the extent that workers could join the middle class. And this was done with a capitalist economy. This undercut the Communists and in the end, and made Communist electoral victiories impossible on a national level. There were still true believers who saw the Soviet Union as a woker and farmer paradise. A Communist victory in Italy or France would have had enormous consequence with America's effort to prevent Soviet expansion into Western Europe.
Stalin was able to keep the horors of Soviet rule and endemic poverty under wraps before World War II. After the War, espcially his death (1953), the truth began to come out. This was especially the case with the 20th Party Congress and the Hungarian Revolution (1956).
European workers enjoying a prosperous capitalist economy began to move away from support of Communist parties. A key aspect of Italy's economic success would be the movemnent toward European Integration that led to the Common Market and eventually the European Union.
Post-Cold War Developments
The Cold War ended with the impossion of the Soviet Union (1991). The PCI decided to disband (1991). Left-wing politicans to consolidate and broaden their base, changed created a new party. A new progressive party was founded, that didn't join the Communist International--the Democratic Party of the Left. This made it one of Italy's largest political parties and western Europe's largest communist party. It changed its name again to Democrats of the Left (1998). The Party joined the the new centre-left Democratic Party (2007). A dissident group of true believers refounded a Communist Party that since 2008 won no representatives in the parliament.
Sources
Federico, G. and Malanima, P. "Progress, decline, growth. Product and productivity in Italian Agriculture 1000–2000," Economic History Review, Vol. 57, No. 3 204), pp. 437–64.
