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The American Navy appered during the Revolutionary War. Although it could not begin to compete with the vast Royal Navy, it did help to raise the cost of the War to the British. It was also the only naval force able to gain victories against the British in individual naval combat, a record it repeated in the War of 1812. The American Navy disapeared after the Revolutionary War and was not revived again until the war with the Barbary pirates at the turn of the 19th century. America did not begin to build a professional force until the Naval Academy in Anapolis was founded (18??). The Navy played a role in the Mexican War and the opening of Japan. The Navy's primary accomplishment in the 19th century was its part in blocakading the Confederacy as part of the Federal Anaconda Plan during the Civil War. It was the American Navy that first deployed a modern iron vessel--the Monitor. American did not, however, begin building a modern navy until President Cleveland's Administration, a process subsequemtly furthered by President T. Roosevelt. After World war I, the British Royal Navy was no longer able to play its traditional role in controling the seas. With Pearl Harbor (1941), a new vastly expanded American Navy took on that role and played a major role in the defeat of Japanese militarism and European Fascism.
The American Navy appered during the Revolutionary War. Although it could not begin to compete with the vast Royal Navy, in the sence of conducting fleet engagements, the Continental Navy did have an inpact on the War. It helpws to raise the cost of the War to the British, an important accomplishment given the influence of merchants on the British Government. The Continental Navy was also the only naval force able to gain victories against the British in individual naval combat, a matter of ome embarassment to the British. The Continental Navy was not a professional force in the sence of the Continental Army, but largely a privateer force.
The founding of the United States Navy occurred when President George Wasgington signed the Act to Provide Naval Armament (March 27, 1794). Cingress authorized nearly $0.7 million to build or purchase six frigates. This was an enormous sum at the time for the new American Republic. At the time America was at peace, although being provoked at sea by both the Frech and British. The frigates were enormous tourist attractions in the United States with guards even charging admission which they apparently used to buy liquor. [Toll] These six frigates would go on to play an important role in the early history of the Republic.
The American Navy disapeared after the Revolutionary War and was not revived again until Washington built the six frigates. They were first tested with the Barbary pirates at the turn of the 19th century. The pasha of Tripoli sponsored attacks on American shipping. After the Revolution, the Americans had lost the protection of the Royal Navy. The pasha and his emisaries aserted that the Holu Koran not only allowed, but made it the 'right and duty' of Muslims 'to make war" upon the infidels that 'they could find and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners". Of course it helped that there were profits to be made in these attacks. All three early presidents were apauled by these attacks. President Washington was furious, and swore,"would to Heaven we had a navy to reform those enemies to mankind, or crush them into non-existence." [Oren] This was one reason Congress created the Navy so that it could protect merican merchants and missionaries. and it was President Jefferson who is often depicted as an idealist and pacifist that ordered the new Navy into the Mediterranen.
The U.S. Navy during the War of 1812 was not avle to conduct fleet engagements with the Royal Navy, but it repeated its Revolutionary War experience of some successful individual engagements. The Boyal Navy was central to the British war plan. The Duke of Wellington advised a three prong strategy in which British forces could rely on support from the Royal Navy.
Slavery was an issue that could not be resolved at the Constitution Convention (1787). There was agreement on a provision to end the slave trade. The new Constitution declared a provision to end the slave trade after a 20-year period. Congress did 20 years later passed the Slave Importation Act (1807). The Act prohibited the further importation of slaves. The British Parliament approve an even more restrictive act in the same year. At the time tens of thousands of slaves were being transported annually, many on British ships. These decesions did not end the slave trade. At the time the U,S. Navy was miniscule and President Jefferson saw no need to expand it. The Royal Navy for its part was fully engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. Nor was there any possibity of cooperation between Britain and America. The British were impressing America sailors, a practice that would eventually lead to the War of 1812. After the Napoleonic Wars, other countries also abolished the slave trade, including France, Spain, and Portugal. The slave continued because of the cintinued demand for slaves in the United States, the Caribbean, and Brazil and the high prices that could be obtained for slaves. The British deployed ships to patrol the African coast (1811). There was some support for the slave trade by sugar merchants, cotton mill ownwrs, Liverpool slavers, and some politicians, but the British public strongly supported the effort. [Vogel] Cooperation with the United States did not occur, even after the War of 1812. Many Americans believed that the British demand of the right of search was nothing more than a disguised effort to disrupt trade with Africa. This impaired cooperative efforts until the Civil War (1861-65). It was not much the cooperation of the fledgeling American Navy that was needed. It was the cooperation of port authorities in the United States, especially the souhern ports, that was needed. And support for slavery in the South was not declining, the profitability of cotton was creating an increased demand for slaves and political support for slavery.
America did not begin to build a professional force until the Naval Academy in Anapolis was founded (18??).
The Navy played a role in the Mexican War.
Commodore Perry during the Filmore Administration opened Japan with what the Japanese called the Black Fleet.
The U.S. Navy's primary accomplishment in the 19th century was its part in blocakading the Confederacy as part of the Federal Anaconda Plan during the Civil War. It was the American Navy that first deployed a modern iron vessel--the Monitor. President Lincoln on April 19, 1861 proclaimed a naval blockade of southern ports. It became known as the Anaconda Plan. Although not immedaitely emplemented by 1862 an expanding American Navy had virtualy cut the Confederacy off from foreign markets for its cotton and other agrcultural products and from foreign military supplies. This was critical because the South did not have the industrial capacity to match the North's manufacturing capacity. It also cut Briatain and France off from supplies of raw cotton.
The Unites States emerged in the late 19th century as a great industrial power. American did not, however, begin building a modern navy until President Cleveland's Administration.
The first combat tet of America's new highseas fleet was combat with thge Spanish Navy in the Spanish American War.
Theodore Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy as Anerica moved towad War with Spain. Hecresigned to form a regiment that fought in Cuba as the Rough Riders. His exploits there led him to be chosen as President McKinnely's vice president. And after McKinnely was assasinated to the presidency. As president he was a strong proponent of naval power. The construction of the Panama Canal helped wirh America's strategic need to buold a two-ocean navy.
As Europe exploded into war, the United States made little effort to expand its very small army. The Navy was an entirely different matter. The U.S. Navy was one of the world's most powerful navies and on the brink of becoming the first navy to challenge the Royal Navy's dominnce in more than a century. Naval analysts rank it third or fourth, behand Britain, France, and perhaps Germny. The Wilson Administration backed plans to significantly expand the Navy. There were several reasons for this. America was now the world's industrial powers with extensive foreign trade. The British Royal Navy blockade of Germany restricted the rights of neutral shipping to which the United states objected. The German dinking of the Luisitania had shocked Americans. And the Japanrse declartion of 21 Points were a direct challenge to America's Open Door Policy.
The U.S. Navy had 17 dreadnought and 23 pre-dreadnought battleships. The Naval Construction pAct of 1916 provided for a massive expansion of the Navy. It authorized the construction of 156 new ships. This included 16 capital ships (10 battleships and 6 battle cruisers). There were also to be numerous new cruisers. All of these new vessels were to be laid down (construction began) by mid-1919. The actual numberous are less significant than the fact ghat these would be modern vessels. This would have meant that by the early 20s that the United States would have the most modern navy in the world. The British even if they won the War would not be able to afford such a massive building program. As the United Sates was still not involved in the War, American naval planning ficused on a war in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean.
America's entry into World war I was the deciding factor in the War. Here it was the American infantry that brike the dead lock on the Western Front. The Royal Navy and French blockade of Germany played a major role in undermining the German and Autrian economies and civilian morale. This was largely accomplished before America entered the War. America had the third largest navy in the world, second only to the British and German navies. The 300 warships of the American Navy only added to the effectiveness of the Allied blockade, but were primarily deployed in the North Atlantic to guard the sea lanes between America and the Britain and France. Especially important was guarding the troopships that delivered the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) to France. A few Navy vessels were deployed in the Mediterranean, but the bulk of the Navy was deploted in the North Atlantics. Only a few Navy vessels were sunk during the War. The cruiser San Diego sunk by mines set by a German U-boat off New York. Two Navy destroyers protecting convoys were sunk by U-boats.
It was German U-boats and the German decesion to resume unrestricted sunmarine warfare that brought America into the War. The German U-boat campaign proved unsuccessful because of the convoy system imnplemented by the Royal Navy and the invention of ASDAC (SONAR). The United States had a small sunmarine force of 30 ships. The U.S. Navy established its Submarine School at the main Submarine Base in New London, Connecticut (January 19, 1917). The American submarines would play little role in World War I, but the force would play a major role in World war II.
The naval arms race between Germany and Britain was a factor contributing to World War I. Germany swas not the only industrial power capable of contesting control of the seas in the early 20th century. The other was the United States. And the British were concerned about growing American power. There was a serious confrontation between America anfd Britain over Venezuela (1890s). America for its part retained a historic objection to British empire building. It is not impossible that condlict could have occurred between America and Britain in the 20th century. When World War I broke out in Europe there were disputes between Britain which established a blockade on Germany and the other Central Powers and America which insisted on the rights of neutral shipping. This was an issue that had developed between America and Britain from the very foundation of the Republic (1790s). President Wilson's closest advisor, Col. House, advised him not to challenge Britain on the issue. This was a factor in President Wilson's decesion to support a naval building peogram (1916). Incredibly recklass German policy with U-boats had the affect of overwealming disputes with the British. Afer the War, President Wilson wanted to raise the issue of neutral shipping rights at the Versailles Peace Conference. The British managed to persuade thenm not to. Wilson who was primarily focused on the League of Nations reluctabntky agreed. The Americans had not, however, forgotten about the issue. This led to a major decesion by Britain. Britain during the 19th and early 20th century was the the domibnant world naval power. World War I had brought Britain close to bankruptsy. The British could ill aford a naval building race with America. The United States not only had a larger industrial base, but it emerged from the War economically more prosperous than Britain. Thus the British had to decide whether to contest b=naval dominance with America are accept a rival naval power. This decession was addressed by the Committee of Naval Defence (winter 1920-21). Prime Minister Lloyd George later wrote that it was the most important and difficult that the Committee had ever considered. The conclusion tghey reached was difficult, but obvious, Britain no longer had the capability to control the seas. It could not outbuild the United States. This with little fanfare or publicity command of the seas began to shift from Britain to America. The British decided that rather than try to outbuild America, they would seek to negotiate arms control agreements.
The United States had anted to sponsor a general arms control agreement. The failire of the Senate to approve ratification of the Versailles Treaty, meant that France was left without American and British guarantees. The French Government thus made it clear that it would not support any limnitations on its army. The United States thus decided to focus on naval arms limitations. After World War I, the British Royal Navy was no longer able to play its traditional role in controling the seas. The German Navy was dismantled. The United States was concerned about the rising power of Japan, a World War I ally. American officials were especially concerned with Jpan's desiigns on China. As part of the World War I settlement, Japan received several Pacific Island territoiries, former German bases. To prevent a nabal arms race the United STates sponsored the Washington Naval Conference. The resulting treaties were strongly resented by Japanese nationalists and the military.
Many naval vessels were decommissioned during the 1920s. The Washington Naval Treaties had placed limits on fleet capacity and Congress severly resticted all military spending. Franklin Roosevelt like his cousin Thedore began his Washington career as Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He served during World War I. As President he took a interest in naval affairs, but his initial policy was limiting military spending to focus on the Depression. Developments in Asia and Europe forced a change in priorities. The first military response to Japanese militaism and NAZI military expansion was renewed naval construction. The Washington Naval Treaties did not limiit aircraft carriers like battleships. Naval commanders continued to see battleships s the Navy's principal strike force. Even so, the Navy did create a significant carrier arm in the inter-war period. President Roosevelt faced strong opposition to his naval buildup from a powerful pacifist-isolationist lobby. The politics of defense spending was complicated and President Roosevelt had a difficult juggling act. Liberal democrats who supported the New Deals social program were not as enthusiastic about defense spending. Conservative Southern Democrats who were supportive of defense spending were not as enthusiastic about New Deal social programs. In particular, efforts to persue civil rights or immigration reform would alienate the Southern Democrats the President needed to gain Congressional approval for defense spending. The naval vessels built during this period, however, especially the carriers were the heart of the fleet that after Pearl Harbor managed to stop the Japanese expansion in the Pacific until a vast new fleet could be built to win the War.
The British often talk about standing against Hitler alone for over a year (1940-41). While true, they were in fact not entirely alone. President Roosevelt was inagurated within weeks of Hitler becoming Chancelor and he was a sharp critic of the NAZIs from the beginning of his Administration. The primary interest of most Americans was to stay out of another European war. President Roosevelt understood that a NZI victory in Europe impreriledthe United States. Thus he pesued policies aimed at supporting the Allies (Britain and France) at the onset of the War and the British after the fall of France. America sold the British war material and when the British approached bankruptsy, he conceived Lend Lease to continue supplying them. The President turne over surplus World War I destroyers to help fight the griwing U-boat meanace. And finally the President committed the United States Navy to an undeclared war in the North Atlantic. This was domne with out Congressional approval and without the full knwledge of the American people. Historians can only speculate about his reasoning. Surely part of it was the straight military objective of protecting the convoys. But many historians believe that he was trying to spark a war. The strength of isolationist thinking made it impossible for the President to get a declaration of war from Congress and even if he had, America would have entered the war a severly divided country. The President may have thought he could goad Hitler into declarung war. (In fact this did actually come about.) Or he may have thought German attacks on American ships would cause a national outrage leading to war. In fact the public respmse to the sinking of American ships was muted, probably reflecting the desire to avoid war.
Isolationist sentiment in America disappeared over night when Japnese carrier-based aircraft struck the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Parl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The United States declared war against Japan in on December 8. FDR was not sure how to proceed against the NAZIs which he considered a greater danger. This dilema was solved by Hitler when on December 11 he declared war on the United States--incredibly the only country on which he ever bothered to formally declare war. The Japanese attack was a stunning tactical victory. It may have been the greatest strategic error in the history of warfare. With one stroke the Japanese had turned a deeply divided country into a unified nation with one purpose, to defeat Japan and her Axis partners. America had an industrial capacity that was not fully appreciate in either Tokyo or Berlin. America was now infused with a burning capacity to wage war to even the most remote spot on earth. Americans who had wanted a Fortress America were to be fighting in far away palces (including many that they had never even heard of) from flying the hump over the Himalaysa, tropical jungles like Guadacanal, frozen landscares like Attu and Kiska, the Sahara Desert, volcanic islands like Iwo Jima, as well as more familiar places like Italy and France. Isolationist Americans waged and won the most expansive conflict in the historty of warfare.
It was in World War II that the ballance of naval power shifted from the British Royal Navy to the United States Navy. The United States Navy, although severely weakened by the Japanese carrier strike on Pearl Harbor, played a decisoive role in the defeat of both Japanese militarism and European Fascism. The Pacific War was primarily a naval war. The battleships which naval planners thought would decide a Pacoific war played only a minor part in the War. It was carriers that began the war and would play the key role in the War. It was American carriers that woukd destroy the Imperial Fleet and help seize the islands that would bring the war home to the Japanese people. Unexpectedly. it was the American submarine force that would play another critical role. American carriers cut Japan off from the resources of the empire it had seized. It was America that conducted the only successful submarine campaign of the War. Not only was the Japanese war economy starved of raw material, but by the end of the War, the Japanese people were facing starvation. The war in Europe is often seen as primarily a air and ground war. The most important battle of the war the Battle of the Atlantic. The U.S. Navy entered this battle even before America entered the War. Without victory here, none of the other Allied land and air battles were possible. And all of Europe would have fallen to either Soviet of NAZI totalitarian rule.
Oren, Michael B. Power, Faith, and Fantasy (2007).
Toll, Ian W. Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (Norton, 2006).
Vogel, Robert. Without Consent or Contract (New York: W.W. Norton, 1989).
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