** American United States Army U.S. Army World War II








United States Army: World War II (1939-45)


Figure 1.--At the time of World War II, only one country had the capbility and recruiting an Army capable of waging war on a world-wide scale--the United States. And the American people did not want to fight another Eropean war. As late as 1941, while public opinion polls had begun to shidt, a decided mjority of the American people did not wanbt tgo enter the war. The Japanese carrier attack on Pearl Harbor changed that instatly. American ent to war with a vengence and as a thorougly unified nation. This unidentified young father at one of the thiusads of railroad statuins all over America was off to War. Amazingly Congress came very close ending the Draft and sending him home few months earlier.

Again when World War II broke out, the American Army consisted of only a small professional core. Thanks to the Roosevelt Administration, steps were underway to build an airforce, but the Army was still a mere shell. Devisive debates were held in the Congress over drafting a sizeable force (1940 and 1941). Only amonth before Pearl Harbor, the Congress almost ended the draft and allow those drafted to return home (November 1941). A journalist working in Britain recalls see the first boatload of American infantry arriving in Britain (January 1942). They were an Iowa National Guard unit, the 43th infantry. They landed in Belfast still wearing the old World War I helmets. They were singing, "Ioway--Ioway--Out Where the Tall Corn Grows". The journalist writes, "I hoped with all my heart that the men who led them knew what they were doing. They seemed a little dewy behind the ears, almost surprised that they were overseas so far from Iowa where they might soon have to fight an ememy who wanted to kill them," [MacVane, p.75.] Few in this and subsequent units had any military experience. And they would soon be pitted against the battle hardened Wehrmact arguaably the most professional military in the history of warfare. They were in fact not prepared as the Panzers demonstrated at Kaserine (February 1943). The U.S. Army proved, however, to be fast learners. The prncipal World War II commnanders emerged from the fighting in Tunisia and Sicily. Most imprtant of all, Eisenhower emnerged as he indespensible Allied commander of the War. [Atkinson] Even major American commanders were guilty of amateurish mistakes. It is not diffcult to understand. Only a few years earlier many had been majors and lieutenant colonels in the peacetime army. The U.S. Army had two major advanyages over the Wehrmacht, First, it was backed by the emenese industrial capacity of the United states. Second, it did not have a political commander that micro-managed operations. Unlike World War I, the U.S. Army did not play the central role in defeating Germany. It did, however, play an important role in reentering the Continent. This allowed it to play a n important role in defeating the NAZIs and in preventing Western Europe from falling into the ominous orbit of the Soviet Union.

American Neutrality (1939-41)

Again when World War II broke out, the American Army consisted of only a small professional core. Thanks to the Roosevelt Administration, steps were underway to build an airforce, but the Army was still a mere shell. The buildup of the U.S. Army in World War II was largely overseen by one man--Gen. George C. Marshal, apatriot of the first order abnd the single most important American commander of World War II. He was not the most senior commander as Europe moved toward war. In fact he was afauirky obscure officer. Marshall was assigned to the War Plans Division in Washington D.C. (July 1938). He was then assugned as Deputy Chief of Staff. It was in that capacity, that Brigadier General Marshall attended a conference at the White House, meeting the President for the first time. President Roosevelt proposed a plan to provide aircraft to England to support the British war preparatiions. No concern was given to logistical support or training. The other attendees agreed with the President and support the plan, Marshall spoke up to qustion it. Many thought that this was the end of a promising career. President Roosevelt was determined to help Britain, but he also recognized the kind of man he needed to lead an experienced, unprepared Army about to enter the greatest war in history. President Roosevelt nominated Marshal over many senior officers to be Army Chief of Staff. Marshall was promoted to General officer and sworn in, irionically on thecsane day tht the German Panzers smashed into Poland (September 1, 1939). He would hold this post throughout World War II As Chief of Staff, Marshall organized the largest military expansion in U.S. history. The Roosevelt Administration proposed a peacetime draft, the first in American history (September 1940). Devisive debates were held in the Congress over drafting a sizeable force (1940 and 1941). As America began building a sizeable army, there wee shortages of just about everything. And there was a need to support Britain. Army chiefs resented ship arms to Britain when their new trainees had to train without arms. By 1941, the U.S. Army was dealing for the first time since the Civil War with substantial numbers of men. It was clear that maneuvers were needed to give the commanders experience wuth handling large forces. This was something that the Whermacht did annually and had been doing son since the 19th century. It was here their Blitzkrieg tactics were honed. The U.S. Army held large scale mauevers in northern Louisiana (August-September 1941). The locals had never seen anything like it, but on the whoe welcomed the Army with open arms. Some 0.4 million men participated. Commanders had the opportunity to test all aspects of their fast-growing, inexperienced force. The tactical doctrines of mobility were tested out. Most of the best kbown American commanders of World War II participted (including Omar Bradley, Mark Clark, Dwight Eisenhower, Lesley McNair, and George Patton). Only a month before Pearl Harbor, the Congress almost ended the draft and allow those drafted to return home (November 1941). A month later the Japanese carrier attack on Pearl Harbor brought America and its inexperienced Army into the War.

World War II

The U.S. Army hardly existed when Hitler and Stalin launched World War II by invading Poland (September 1939). The vast majority of Americans decided after World War I decided participation in the War had been a huge mistake and thus resolved to never again participate in another European war. There were no consequences to this in the 1920s when there was no serious threats. Opposition to military spending increased as a result of the Wall Street Crash and resulting Depression (1929). Public opinion did not materially change change in the 1930s as real threats appeared (NAZI Germany, Imperial Japan, and the Soviet Union). And by the end of the decade, these aggressive totalitarian powers held the world balance of military force. Not the predominant military potential, but the predominant military force in being. Unfortunately, the American people dis not recognize the threat and the dominant view was still to avoid another war and oppose military spending. The Roosevelt Administration recognized the Fascist threat, but for what ever reason, ignored the Soviet threat. And the President faced a voting public that was focused on the Depression and did not favor military spending. What spending that the Roosevelt obtained was largely focused on naval and air forces which were justified as 'Hemispheric Defense'. The Army became essentially the military poor sister. There was also the idea of invaliding another bloody ground war and use technology (naval and air forces) to defend America. As a result, the U.S. Army of all the three forces was the least prepared to fight. This was the U.S. Army that Gen. Marshall inherited when the President chose him to head the Army. The President hoped that the British and French with American material support could contain Hitler. The fall of France ended any possibility of this with out active American military involvement (June 1940). As a result the President by a narrow Congressional vote got authorization gor a peace-time draft (October 1940). Other defense measures followed including Lend Lease (March 1941). All these measures were limited by public resistance to entering the War and the powerful Isolationist Movement. At the time of World War II, only one country had the capbility of fierlding and supporting n Army capable of waging war on a world-wide scale--the United States. America ent to war with a vengence and as a thorougly unified nation. The United States would fight campigns on every cntinent except Antartica. Not other military force in history conducted military operations with a comparable reach or on such a scale. The U.S. Army deployed in the Western Hemisphere, the Pacific, the Mediterranean (North Africa/Italy), Europe (northern Europe), the Middle East, China-Burma-India (CBI). Even before entering the War, the U.S. Army concvluded that Hitler and the BAZIs were the primsry threat. This was confirmed by President Roosevelt and Prime-Minister Churchill that the War would be waged with a Germny-First focus (August 1941). nd this coninued even after the Japanese attck on Pearl Harbor (December 1941). Only with that attack on Pearl Harbor did Ameriuca go to war (December 1941). Abf finally the Congressional taps turned on. Thr Isolationist Movement evaporated. America began building a powerful Army and the Arsenal of Democracy went in gear to build the arms needed to fight the War. America did not, however, build an Army as large as the Soviets and Germans. Part of the reason for that was to use technology to fight the War meaning more emphasis on naval and air forces. Another part of the decision was to limit the Army to 90 divisions was that a larger force would have meant drafting more workers which would have adversely affecting the output of the Arsenal of Democracy. This would have meant less material support for not only American forces, but British, Soviet, and other Allied forces.

America Enters the War (1942)

Thanks to two wide oceans, most of America's military assets and forces were beyond the range of enemy attack. This had not been the case of the other major belligerent countries (Poland, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union). The exception was the Pacific Fleet and the Army forces in the Philippines. The Japanese launched a stunning attack on Pearl, but only succeeded on temporarily incapacitating largely obsolete battleships. The Japanese also destroyed large numbers of aircraft and cut off the U.S. Army forces on the Philippines. They were the only force that put up any effective resistance to the Japanese onslaught after Pearl (December 1941-May 1942). Unfortunately, Gen MacArthur retired into the Bataan Peninsula without prepositional supplied. And as a result of Japanese naval dominance could not be resupplied. The result was the horrific Bataan Death March (March 1942). The inability of the Axis to bring the War to America meant that the U.S. Army could continue the build up began with the peace time draft. Unlike World I, America and begun a peace-time draft a year before Pearl Harbor. It was a limited draft, but it was as beginning. And there would be little or no interference from Axis military forces as America began a huge expansion of its military and geared up the Arsenal of Democracy. Despite their Japanese attack, the United States had already decided on a Germany-first strategy. Available forces were rushed to Britain as show of support and freeing up British forces. A journalist working in Britain recalls seeing the first boatload of American infantry arriving in Britain (January 1942). They were an Iowa National Guard unit, the 43th infantry. They landed in Belfast still wearing the old World War I helmets. They were singing, "Ioway--Ioway--Out Where the Tall Corn Grows". The journalist writes, "I hoped with all my heart that the men who led them knew what they were doing. They seemed a little dewy behind the ears, almost surprised that they were overseas so far from Iowa where they might soon have to fight an enemy who wanted to kill them," [MacVane, p.75.] Both the Germans and Japanese believed that America would not be able to enter the War until well into 1943. Some German estimates were even longer. They proved to be wrong. In the Pacific the United States bombed Tokyo (April 1942), stopped a Japanese invasion force in the Coral Sea, cut the heart out of the First Air Fleet (June), and finally seized Guadalcanal (August). Most of this was done by the Navy/Marines. The Army moved forces into Australia, and various South Pacific Islands. The Pacific theater was divided into a Army and Navy sectors. The 1st Marine Divsion on a shoe-string managed to stop the Japanese on Guadalcanal. The Marine Corps was, howover, a very small force. To defeat the Axis on the ground, a hugely expanded army was required. In Europe the Army's main focus was building up the 8th Air Force and than invading Axis-held North Africa -- the Torch Offensive (November 1942). President Roosevelt did not normally get involved in strategy, but in this case he did. He was determined that America had to get into combat somewhere in the European area during 1942. Strangely, Gen. Marshall opposed Torch and was already talking about a Cross-Channel invasion. Torch was not only important strategically, but provided a combat environment in which the indexperienced, untested U.S. Army could cut its teeth beyond the really effective range of German arms--a huge advantage that earlier German victims did not have.

The Beginning of the End (1943)

The Axis suffered severe defeats (1842). And in in 1943 the Allies began to win back territory. It was now clear that the Sxus as no going to win the War, it was not yet clar tht unconditionl surrender the allies demznded (January 1943) was feasible. Every thing the U.S. Army did in 1942 was on a shoestring, even the two offensive axtions (Gudalcanal and North Africa). This changed in 1943. The Arsnal of Democracy was not yet fully mobilized, but it was already churning out inprecedented quantities of military eqiopment. This was far in excess of what the Axis leaders had anticipated, for that matter more than the Allied leaders had believed possible. This is whu the NAZis had to orient its war econommy to the war in the west rather than supporting the Ostheer in the all important Ostkrieg. U.S. Army units were in combat and substabtiul numbers of divisions were activated and ciommitted. Even mor ewere panned and in training. It was the Soviet Red Army that was backbone of resustabce to the Wehrmacht, but even among thed Western allues, it was the British and Commonwealth forces that carried much of the fight, although often armed with Anerican supplies and equipment. In Europe, the U.S. Army got its baptism of fire in North Africa. While it was stunned by the Afrika Korps at Kasserune (February 1943). It was clear from his point tghat the artillery uould be a major part of the Army's punch. The Amricans were by the end of the campaign a creduitable forcee. British condendscion , calling the Americans 'our Itlians', did not last long. The campign in Tunisi ended with the American taking Bizerte and the Britih Tunis (May 1943). The Allies invaded Sicily (July 1943) and the Americans and British were equak parners as they were in Italy from the beginnin (September 1943). The Americzans were less committed to the Italian campaign than the British. The moutanerous Italian terraine did not play to the Americsan strenbgth -- motorized mobility. The Americans were focused on a Cross Channel invasion. As a result, after the Salerno invsason, much of the Army's growing strength went to Britain not Italy and the Americzns refused to pasrticipate in other operations the British wanted in the Meditteranran. Gen. Eisenhower and his staff arriveda at the end of the year. Prime Minister Churchill and many British commanders were less committed to Overlord. With Eusenhower in Btitain and the Americans committed, really planning and prepations began. The Army joined the Marines in move up thre Solomon chain. In New Guinea, the Australian infantry continued to be the major force. The Navy's Central Pacific Campaign was launched wih the bloody invasion of Tarawa November (1943). Throughout 1943, the U.S. Army had no tactical air doctrine, although the Marines were devloping one. The United States began the War wiyhonly yhe most miniml understandinf amphibious operation. By theend of 1943, the United States incliding the Army weas becoming expers at amphibious operations, laying the foundation for the Big Show--Overlord..

Fatal Blows (1944)


Apocalypse (1945)


Gen. Marshal's 90 Division Gamble

One of the central issues the United States Armt had to answer was how many divisions would be beeded to fight World War II a. primarily meant what was needed to defeat NAZI Germany. From the beginning, even before entering the War, the Army and President Roosevelt designated Germany/Europe First as the chief objective. The estimates ofvthe number of divisions varied wideky over time. The exitence of the French Army meant that a limited number of divisions might be needed if Amerucan entered the War. The fall of France meant that 1) American would eventually have to come into thr War and 2) a larger commitment than in World War I would be beeded. At the eve of Pearl Harbor, War Deoartment planner, General Lesley McNair, estimated that over 200 divisiins would be needed and that was before Pearl Harbor. After Pearl Harbor, the Joint Chiefs of Staff came up with am estimate of 334 divisions. Overall, Germany with a much smaller pooulation deployed some 300 divisionsm -- actually more if you calculate reconstutted divisions. Of course the armies are only part of the miitary mobilized 11 percent of the population. Britaon mobilized 8 percent. America would be only slightly below the British level. [Matloff] The final American division number was in part defined by the war in the East. If the Red Army collapsed a higher number of divusions would be needed. As the Red Army held in 1942, Gen. Marshal could bring down that number--finally to only 90 divisions. It was a huge gamble. And Marhal has been criticized for it. One Army historian explains why such a low number was finally set, "The problem as well as the answer stemmed basically from the fact that the Allies had from the beginning accepted the proposition that the single greatest tangible asset the United States brought to the coalition in World War II was the productive capacity of its industry. From the very beginning, American manpower calculations were closely correlated with the needs of war industry." [Matloff] It was the war that President Roosevelt even before it was clear that America would enter the War. The United Staies would avoid the costly trench warfare of the World War I Western Front. America would use its industry and technology. Thus the Navy and Air Corps were given priority funding. America as the President phrased it would be the great Asenal of Democracy. It was the way the Pre3sident decided to fight the War. War Production Board Director Donald Nelson's assessment that buikding a huge army would aversely impact production. Nelson told military leaders that the conversion of the economy to the production of military materiel was happening to quickly (October 6, 1942). This issue became known as the 'Feasibility Dispute'. Te Soviet Voctiry at Stalingrad, and other factors helped Gen. Marsgall to cap the Army at 90 divisions. The Battle of the Bukge (December 1944), left America without a strategic reserve, but it proved enough to win the War.

The Army Air Corps

The U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC) was organizationally part of the Army, but in fact it opetated to a substantial degree as a independent air force. From an eraly point, aviation evolved from a component of ground-based infantry tactics into its own branch of the military. Gen. Billy Mitchell was a casualty of this process (1920s). This calls for a separate consideration. The USAAC was led by Gen. Henry 'Hap' Arnoild--one of the American five-star commnders. The USAAC became the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) (1941). Arnold remined in command. The USAAF wa dominted by the Bomber Boys who were convinced that the War could be wion thoiugh stratgic bombing. As the USAAC was organizationally part of the Army, you might have thought that the focus or at least considerable thought and funding would have been given to tactical air -- meaning close ground support. Thre Bomber Boy's were, howeevrer, not interested in Tacair. And virtually no thought was given to tactical air--something the German Luftwaff had from the first day of the War. The Unuted States as a result entered the war without a tactical air doctrine. The one voice for Tacair was Claire Chenaulht. He was eased out of the chain of command and shippoed off to China. A tactucal air was developed by trial and error, but was not fully implemnented until a few days after D-Day when air bases could be set uo in France. The leading figure in developing a tactical air dictrine was Elwood 'Pete' Quesada. Quesada and the Ninth Air Force would play a crutical role in the Liberation of France and the Invasion of Germany. The great bulk of the USAAC effort, however, was on the Strategic Boimbing Campaghn agaunst Germany and Japan. The B-17 Flying Fortress becane the symbol of American air power. The most expensive weapons program of the War was not the atomic bomb, but the B-20 Superfort. Interestingly, the bombing campaign only became effective when the long-range P-51 Mutang fighter became avilsable.

Training

Few in this and subsequent units had any military experience. And they would soon be pitted against the battle hardened Wehrmact arguaably the most professional military in the history of warfare. They were in fact not prepared as the Panzers demonstrated at Kaserine (February 1943). The U.S. Army proved, however, to be fast learners.

Weaponry

America fought World War I with mostly British and French weapns. America was not prepared for World War II, but it was better prered than for Wold War I. And this time it was America that would not only equip the U.S. Army, but the armoes of its allies as well. The United States produced some excellnt weons during the War. The M-1 Garand rifle was the finest rifle of the war because it was semi-automatic. Ametican artillery was also excellent. And American trucks played a critical role. There were, however, serious deficencies in American weaponry, especially small arms and armor.

Intelligence and Code Cracking

The United States had no intelligence agency, but as a result of World War I the military pursued small code programs which were aimed primarily at the Japanese as they kaunched their campign of agression and steadikly xpanded their military. The program became called Magic. It became a joint U.S. Army/Navy project. This resulted in cracking first the Purple dipolmatic code (1940) and thn the all imprtant JN-25 naval code (1942). After the inset of Workld War II, the Americans began coioperating with the British code breakers at Bletchley Park and swirk on the German codes began.

Commanders

The principal World War II commnanders emerged from the fighting in Tunisia and Sicily. Most imprtant of all, Eisenhower emnerged as he indespensible Allied commander of the War. [Atkinson] Even major American commanders were guilty of amateurish mistakes. It is not diffcult to understand. Only a few years earlier many had been majors and lieutenant colonels in the peacetime army. The U.S. Army had two major advanyages over the Wehrmacht, First, it was backed by the emenese industrial capacity of the United states. Second, it did not have a political commander that micro-managed operations.

Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC/WAC) (May 1942)

Some 150,000 American women served in the Women's Army Corps (WAC) during World War II. The WACs were the first women, other than nurses, to serve as part of the U.S. Army. Conress created the Woman's Army Auxilery Corps (1942), bit when ctivated was shortened to the WASc (1943). This was not an easy innovation. Both the Army at all ranks and the public were skeptical abour woman soldiers. The idea of women in uniform was difficult for many some to accept. Some of the more forward thinking military and political figures saw that women could provide additional resources for what would be the great military challenge in American history. Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogers of Massachusetts met with General George C. Marshall, the Army's Chief of Staff (ealy 1941). She told him that she was going to introduce a bill to establish an Army women's corps which would be separate from the existing Army Nurse Corps. Rogers was aware of the women who had worked overseas with the Army under contract and as volunteers during World War I. They worked as communications specialists and dietitians. They wiorked without benefit of any official status. They were responsinle for obtaining their own food and quarters and received no legal protection or medical care. When they returned home, they were not entitled to the disability benefits or pensions available to all U.S. military veterans. Rogers was determined that this inequitabble treatment would not be repeated. Gen. Marshall decided to work with Rogers and to craft and sponsor an organization that would would not threaten the Army's existing culture. Rogers wanted the women's to be part of the Army so that women would receive equal pay, pension, and disability benefits. The Army wanted aeparatec corps. The final bill represented a compromise. Rogers introduced her bill (May 1941). It failed to receive serious consideration, however, until after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor propelled Anmeruica into the War (December 1941).. General Marshall's active support and congressional testimony helped the Rogers bill through Congress. After a long and acrimonious Congressional debate, the Rogers bill finally passed the House 249 to 86. The Senate approved the bill 38 to 27 (May 14). President Roosevelt signed the bill into law the next day May 15). Many were surprised by the entusiam of women when offered the opportunity. Thousands of women served in the Army`s Women`s Army Corps (WAC) and Navy equivalent Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES). The WACs would do almost everything the men did and go everywhere the men did, except into combat. The WAVES were a little different. WAVES were not allowed to serve on ships.

Combat Doctrine


Shaping Post-War Europe

Unlike World War I, the U.S. Army did not play the central role in defeating Germany. It did, however, play an important role in reentering the Continent. This allowed it to contribut to defeating the NAZIs and in preventing Western Europe from falling into the ominous orbit of the Soviet Union. It should be rembered that World War II was not just launched by Adolf Hitler and the NAZIS, but in tandem with Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union. And yh NAZIs snd Sovietds waged World War II as allies for nearly 2 years. Thus the United States played an important role in defeating NAZI Germany during World War II and its Axis allies and would eventually four decaded later help defeat the other World Wwar II aggressor--the Soviet Union. It was the U.S. army that was primsrily involved in shaping Germany and Japan into modern democratic nations. This is something taken fvor granted today, but was not given in 1945.

Sources

Atkinson, Rick. The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943-1944 (Henry Holt, 2007), 791p.

MacVane, John. On the Air in World War II (William Morrow and Company: New York, 1979), 384p.

Matloff, Maurice. "The 90 Divison Gamble".






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Created: 12:42 AM 6/18/2013
Last updated: 10:05 PM 6/28/2020