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The Ottoman Empire was made up of many nationalities. Even in the central Ottomon territory of Anatolia there were other natiinalities (Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds). Greece had reluntayly joined the Allies in World War I. Like Italy, they were offerred territorial rewards in exchange for their participation. King George?? had opposed war, but with Allied assustance a new government seized power and declared war. The Allies promised Greece eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, and parts of western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna. These were all areas with sizeable Greek populations. The Treaty of Sèvres end the war between the Allies and the Ottomon Empire. Provisions of the Treaty alloted all of these territories to Greece. Greek troops had after World War I occupied Smyrna (May 1919). Following the War, Ottoman general Mustafa Kemal (Kemal Atatürk) with other Young Turks in Ankara formed a new Turkish nationalist government and repudiated the Treaty of Sèvres. Atatürk organized an army to confront the Greeks. the Greek army moved into Anatolia to engage the Turkish Army before they attaked the Greeks at Smyrna (October 1920). The Greeks had the support of British Prime Minister Lloyd George. The Greek offensive was organized by Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos, but the Venizelos goverment lost power. Dimitrios Gounaris organized a government more favorably disposed to the monarchy. The British distrusted the King who had opposed Greece's entry into the War. Gounaris appointed monarchist officers to important commands, primarily because of their political sympathies. Many were inexperienced. King Constantine himself took personal command of the Greek forces at Smyrna. The Greeks advanced to the River Sakarya. They were only about 100km from Ankara (June 1921). Atatürk counter-attacked and drove the Greeks back at the at the Battle of Sakarya (August 23-September 13, 1921). The Greeks retreated to Smyrna. They requested aid from the Allies. The British refused to help the Greeks. Subsequently the Allies (Britain, France and Italy) agreed that the Treaty of Sèvres could not be enforced without military intervention which they were not willing to do and expressed a willingness to revise th Treaty. The Allies attempted to negotiate a ceasfire between the Greeks and Turks (March 1922). Atatürk was unwilling, insisting that the Greeks had to withdraw from Anatolia. He planned an offendive against the Greeks. The Turks defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Dumlupinar near Afyon (August 30, 1922). This opened the way to Smyrna. The Turks destroyed the city and massacred any Greek who was not evacuated, including civilians. News of the massacre at Smyrna caused a general exodus of Greeks from Anatolia, communities that had been established in ancient times.
The Ottoman Empire was made up of many nationalities. Even in the central Ottomon territory of Anatolia there were other nationalities (Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds). The Ottomans from the mid-19th cebntury were no longer a major power. They were increasingly pressed by the Russians. Only differences among the great powers as to how to divide the Ottoman Empire kept it alive. The Crimea War (1854-56) was fought to prevent Russian advances toward thec Dardanalles.) After the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), Germany and the Ottomans developed increasingly close economic and military cooperation. The Ottomans joined Hermany in World War I, seeing it as an opportunity to regain territory lost to the Russians.
King George was assasinated (1913) just before the outbreak of World War I. King Constantine suceeded his father. When World War I (1914-18) broke out, Constantine was inclined toward the Germans, but refused to commit himself publically. The King, despite his personal feelings, did not want his country to enter the War. He especially resisted joining the Allied side. He had family tie to both sides. He was the Kaiser's brother-in-law. He was also a nephew of the English Queen Mother Alexandra. He fully expected the Central Powers to win the War. The British considered him a pro-German weakling and nicknamed him "tino". Prime Minister Venizelos felt differently. Venizelos had led the Greeks in the Balkan Wars which preceeded World War I. He thought that the Allies would win the war, and that Greek participation would yield benefits against Bulgaria and Turkey. Greeks in 1914 were divided about what they should do. When Bulgraia and Turkey joined the Central Powers, the potential stakes rose for Greece. It was likely that the end of the war would bring major border changes. If the Central Powers won, Bulgaria might claim land in Macedonia and Thrace, at the expense of Greece. On the other hand, if the Allies won, Bulgaria and especially Turkey would lose territory. There was thus considerable support for the Allies in Greece, especially after the Turks joined the Central Powers in the War. An oposition government was formed which was recognized by Britain and France. King Constantine was forced to abdicate in favor of his second son, Prince Alexander.
King Alexander with the support of Greek nationalists joined the Allies in the War. Like Italy, they were offerred territorial rewards in exchange for their participation. The Allies promised Greece eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros and Tenedos, and parts of western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna. These were all areas with sizeable Greek populations.
The Treaty of Sèvres ended the war between the Allies and the Ottomon Empire. Provisions of the Treaty alloted all of the promissed territories to Greece. In the post-war settlement, Greece was given eastern Thrace and the
Aegean Islands that had been occupied by Italy.
Some Greek nationalists persued the dream of the Megali Idea. This was an expanded Greek state which would include western Anatolia, Constantinople, and the Dardanelles. Constantinope of course was the capitalm of the Byzantibe Empire and thus a city of great historical importance to the Greeks. Greek troops had after World War I occupied Smyrna (May 1919) and Thrace, the last remaining European territory of the Otooman Empire.
Following the War, Ottoman general Mustafa Kemal (Kemal Atatürk) with other Young Turks in Ankara formed a new Turkish nationalist government and repudiated the Treaty of Sèvres. Atatürk organized an army to confront the Greeks.
Alexander died in 1920 as a result, of all things, a monkey bite. His younger brother Paul refused the throne. A national plebecite returned Constantine I to the throne by a huge margin, although the Allies disapproved because the King had opposed Greece entering World War I.
the Greek army moved into Anatolia to engage the Turkish Army before they attaked the Greeks at Smyrna (October 1920). The Greeks had the support of British Prime Minister Lloyd George. The Greek offensive was organized by Liberal government of Eleftherios Venizelos, but the Venizelos goverment lost power.
Dimitrios Gounaris organized a government more favorably disposed to King Constantine. The British distrusted the King who had opposed Greece's entry into the War. Gounaris appointed monarchist officers to important commands, primarily because of their political sympathies. Many were inexperienced. King Constantine himself took personal command of the Greek forces at Smyrna. The Greeks advanced to the River Sakarya. They were only about 100km from Ankara (June 1921).
Atatürk counter-attacked and drove the Greeks back at the at the Battle of Sakarya (August 23-September 13, 1921). The Greeks retreated to Smyrna.
The Greeks y requested aid from the Allies. The British refused to help the Greeks. Subsequently the Allies (Britain, France and Italy) agreed that the Treaty of Sèvres could not be enforced without military intervention which they were not willing to do and expressed a willingness to revise th Treaty. The Allies attempted to negotiate a ceasfire between the Greeks and Turks (March 1922). Atatürk was unwilling, insisting that the Greeks had to withdraw from Anatolia.
He planned an offendive against the Greeks. The Turks defeated the Greeks at the Battle of Dumlupinar near Afyon (August 30, 1922). This opened the way to Smyrna. The Turks destroyed the city and massacred any Greek who was not evacuated, including civilians. News of the massacre at Smyrna caused a general exodus of Greeks from Anatolia, communities that had been established in ancient times.
Atatürk after routing the Greek Army had the only sizeable military force in Anatolia. The British had a small military force in Constantinople and the
Dardanelles. A major military effort would be needed to maintain possession of the
Dardanelles and enforce the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. Prime Minister Lloyd George was unwilling to mount a military effort to oppse the Turks. There was no appetite in Btitain for even a small war.
The Turks demanded that the Greeks evacuate east Thrace, Imbros and Tenedos as well as Anatolia. Most of the ethnic Greeks in Anatolia had already fled or had been expelled by the Turks. The Greeks in the Treaty of Lausanne (July 1923) were forced to accept Turkish possesion of Anatolia and east Thrace. The Italians kept the Dodecanese Islands, which they had seized from the Ottomans before World War I (1912). The Turks accepted Greek possessionnof western Thrace. There was a substantial Turkish opulation in western Thrace, but Ataturk wanted to establish a homogenous Turkish state and western Thrace had a majority Greek population. The Treaty of Lausanne provided for the exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey. More than 1 million Greeks were expelled from Anatolia and about 0.5 million Turks were expelled from Greece. The Greeks in Constantinople and the Turks of western Thrace were exempted from the forced transfers.
Greeks were expelled from villages where their ancestors had lived since ancient times. The Greeks had lived along the coast of Anaolia for centuries. The Persian invasions of Greece in the 4th century BC were inspired by Athenia aid to Greek city states in Anatolia. Accounts vary concerning the population movements. Some Greek authors refer to it as a genocide. The number of Greeks killed are not well documented, primarily because thekillings occurred in Turkish controlled areas. Other sources maintain that unlike the Armenian genocide the Turks did not plan the killing of Greeks. The vast proportion of the Anatolian Greeks reached Greece alive, although they were impoverished.
An attempt to demobalize the Army resulted in a miltary dictatorship. King Constantine was deposed again and forced into exile. Five commanders of the failed Anatolian expedition were arrested, found guilty of treason, and executed. Constantine's younger brother was crowned King George II in 1922, but was a pupet ruler under the military government. The refugees from Anatolia as well as the army were strongly anti-royalist and in 1924 a republic was proclaimed. King George had to leave the country. The Royal Navy helped the Greek royal family leave. It is at this time the young Prince Philip, Queen Elizabrth's husband, became a refugee. A Republic was proclaimed in 1924 and a democratic constition approved in 1927. Political instability followed, however, especially after the onset of the Great Depressiion in 1929.
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