Figure 1.-- |
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The social and state systems of Russia, Yugoslavia, and other Eastern European countries need to be considered by HBC, both the impact of the Communists when they seized power and the aftermath of the fall of Communist regimes. Communism as a social force was founded by Karl Marx in his land mark work Das Kapital. The first Communist state was of course the Soviet Union. The Revolution was a reaction to the privations of World War I (1914-18), in which the Russian people, suffered greviously. The Bolshevicks emerged victorious against a democratic Provisional Government (1917). This led led to a distructive Civil war between Reds and Whites (1918-22). The Bolshevivks proceeded found not only a socialist economy, but a repressive police state under Lenin and more importantly Stalin. It is now recognized by most authors that Stalin's ruthless policies including engineering a famine in the Ukraine resulted in more deaths that even Hitler's Holocaust and other genocidal policies. Stalin at the outbreak of World War II at first entered a partnership with Hitler, but then was invaded (1941). The Great Patriotic War waged by the Russian people was the key factor in the defeat of the German Army (1945). It also left Stalin in control of the countries of Eastern Europe. The result was the Cold War with American and the European democracies. The internal contridictions and efficencies of the Communist system and the desire of natuonal groups for indepence led to the unraveling of the Stalin's Soviet empire, first in Poland (1989) and finally the Soviet Union itself (1991). The Communists without a maket economy are of course not noted for their fashion sence and fashion industry. There were some ideological constraints on fashion. Often clothing manufacturers just copied Western styles, but there were clothing industries in these countries and fashion developments. Some countries had specialized school fashions and uniforms and the Young Pioners were forme with uniforms.
Communism as a social force was founded by Karl Marx in his land mark work Das Kapital.
Russian support for the Serbs was the immediate cause of Germany decalring war in 1914 and launching World War I. No country suffered more from the War than Russia's illprepared and supported peasany army. Casualties on the Eastern front were even grater than on the Western front. The Russian soldiers had little artillery support and were unprotected from German poison gas attacks. Russia's war effort undoubtedly prevented Germany from bringing the full weight of her army to bear against France and gaining victory in the first weeks of the War. Millions of Russian soldiers and civilians died in both the fighting and destruction as well as food shortages on the home front.
The first Communist state was of course the Soviet Union. The Revolution was a reaction to the privations of World War I (1914-18), in which the Russian people, suffered greviously. The Bolshevicks emerged victorious against a democratic Provisional Government (1917). The Russian Revolution is often described as a result of social forces that had been developing for centuries. A strong case can be made for the Revolution as a coupd'état that may have never occurred without the leadership of Lenin. [Pipes] The Revolution led to a distructive Civil war between Reds and Whites (1918-22). The Bolshevivks proceeded to found not only a socialist economy, but a repressive police state under Lenin and more importantly Stalin. It is now recognized by most authors that Stalin's ruthless policies including engineering a famine in the Ukraine resulted in more deaths that even Hitler's Holocaust and other genocidal policies. Stalin set up a cult of personality in which the Soviet people were forced to virtaully worship him. The Soviets reported substanial economic and industrial progress. Actually before World War I Russia had a very rapidly growing economy. Some economists suggest that the Russian economy would have developed even more rapidly haf he Bolshevicks not seized control of the economy. Agricultural production after impressive gains durng the NEP of the 1920s declined in the 1930s. The First Five-Year Plan concentrated on heavy industry. Soviet officials announced that the Second Five-Year Plan would focus on housing, transport, consumer goods in an effort to raise the standard of living. [1932]. The late 1920s saw Stalin move to take total control of the Soviet state from his position of power as Chairman of the Communist Party. Popular Sergi Kirov was murdered in 1934. Stalin used this as an excuse for launching a campaign of teror perhaps unequaled in histoy. The Gulag is the system of slave labor camps initially established in 1919 by the Cheka--the secret police established by the Bolshevicks after they seized power from the Russian Provisional Government. The numbers of people incarcerated was realtively limited during the 1920s while Lenin was alive and after his death when Bolsevick leadrs struggled for comtrol. This began to change one Stalin ha seized control of the Soviet Union. Stlalin was in control by 1929 and by the early 1930s the numbers of people incarcerated in the camps of the Gulag began to reach sizeable numbers. The De-Stalinization of the Soviet Union began with Nikita Khrushchev's secret speech at the 20th Party Congress in 1956. There were limits on how far Khrushchev and other Soviet leaders were prepared to go Most had been active participants in he Great Terror. Khrushchev owed his position to Stalin and in agreed with Stalin on many issues. [Taubman] Most Soviet experts after World War II came to see the Soviet Union as a powerful state that was widely supported by its people. Few theorized any thing but a regime that would be powerful challenge to the West for the forseeable future. Few described the Soviet state as one not commanding the allegiance of large numbers of its citizens or one that if pressured would implode. [Pipes] Much of Western Europe in the 1980s was willing to work with the Soviets. Some Europeans were convinced that American oposition to the Soviets would only strengthen Some believed that the Soiviets should be handled Others argued that Soviet arms escalations like IRBMs should not be answered. Chancellor Kohl and President Regan did answer with Persian IIs. The result was of the american pressure was Gorbachev's effort to reform the Soviet system and real Soviet willingness to limit arms. [Pipes]
As Stalin was gaining mastery of the Soviet Union. The question of control over the Communist parties in Western democracies. Stalin's first step was to suspend the annual meetings of Communist International for 6 years. The first step was to drive out the Trotskyists. Next te mantra of "permanent revolution" was changed to "socilaism in one country". This by definition made the revolutionary aspirations in each country secondary to the defense of the Soviet Union. Thus the revolutionary parties were converted to instruments of Soviet foreign policy. Members would did not agree with this change were gradually weeded out, leaders expelled or disposed of. Were in not for the dreadful consequences of this process, what followed was almost comical. Socialist and liberals interested in improving the lives pf workers through legal processes were labeled "social-fascists". Germany Communists were known the coooerate with the NAZIs against reformers, such as in a Berlin tram strike. [Wells, p. 962.] The Communists by opposing moderate governments in Germany palyed into Hitler's hands and were a factor in the NAZI seizure of power (1933). They were the first to be arrested and incarcerated in the new concentragtion camps. The disastrous turn of events in Germany convinced Stalin that a new policy was needed. The result was the Stalin-Laval Pact and a shift in directives. Communist parties had for years throughout Europe preached anti-militarism and anti-imperialism. Suddenly they were ordered by the Seventh Comintern to begin to cooperate with the once revialed Socialists and Liberals and form Popular Fronts against Fascism (1935). They were instructed to support rearmament proposals abnd other policies that they had previously opposed. There were in the 1930s as a result of Stalin's control of Western European (and American) Communist Parties two political groups in virtually every country that were controlled by outside powers, the right wing pro-NAZI Fascists and the the Communists which seem irreconciably opposed. [Wells, p. 962.] As dramatic as the swings in Communist polict were in the early and mid-1930s, even more dramatic swings would be irdered by Stalin in 1939 and 1941.
NAZI Foreign Minister Ribbentrop and newly appointed Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs Molotov on August 23, 1939, signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. At the time of thesigning, British and French delegations were in Moscow trying to reach an understanding with Stalin. He was convinced, however, that they were tring to draw him into a war with Hitler. The two countries which until that time had been bitter foes, pledged not attack each other. Any problems developing between the two countries were to be delt with amicably. It was last for 10 years. The Pact shocked the world and the purpose was immedietly apparent. It meant that Germany could attack Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. Thus after defeating Poland, Germany did not have to fear a full-scale European war on two fronts. What was not known at the time was that there was a secret protocol to the pact which in effect divided Eastern Europe betwen the two countries. This protocol was discoered after the end of the World War II in 1945. The Soviets continued to deny this protocol until 1989. The NAZIs 8 days after signing the Pact invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War II. Britain and France declared war September 3. Poland's fate was sealed on September 17, when the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. Although the Soviet's did not enter the War against Britain and France, the Soviets were virtual NAZI allies as they provided large quantaies of strategic materials, especially oil. Communist parties in Britainand France opposedthe war effort. The Communst Party in America opposed President Roosevelt's efforts to expand defense spending and assist Britain and France.
World War II was launched by the Germans when they invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. At first it was a European war which after he fall of rance it looked like the NAZIs had won. This changed in 1941. Stalin had entered a partnership with Hitler, but then was invaded (June 1941). Hitler's invassion, Operation Barbarossa, was an operation of staggering dimensions whixh rocked the Soviet Union to its core. Despite staggering losses, the Red Army not only held before Miscowand inflicted the first major blow to the Wehrmacht. The NAZI invasion of the Soviet Union and the subsequent Japanese attack on Pear Harbor (December 1941) turned the struggle into a world war. This was followed by another winter victory at Stalingrad (December 1942-January 1943). The Soviet in the huge tank battle at Kursk wrestled control of the course of the War from the Germans (July 1943). The Great Patriotic War waged by the Russian people was the key factor in the defeat of the German Army (1945). Often Western historical studies to not give adequate attention to the overwealming role tha the Red Army played in wearing down the Wehrmacht. Thus the Soviets through the Non-Aggression Pact with the NAZs played a role in launching the War. Ironically, it wa the Red Army that played a critical role in defeating the NAZIs.
Germany's defeat left Stalin in control of the countries of Eastern Europe. President Harry Truman whe he became president in April 1945 began taking a stringer aproach o the Soviets, disturbbed by Soviet actions in Poland. Stalin proceeded to install People's Republics in these states which men Stalinist police states subservient to the Soviet Union. American and European democracies sharply critivised the Soviet actions. Winston Churchill warned in 1946 that an "iron curtain" was descending through the middle of Europe. Joseph Stalin who had virtually allied himself wih Hitler in 1939 to launch World War II, blamed the Wat on "capitalist imperialism" and threatened Wrestern Europe. Preident Truman decided to support Western Europ ecomomically (the Marshll Plan) and militarily (NATO). The Cold War was a period of intense East-West competition, tension, and conflict, but always short of full-scale war. The first major episode was the oviet blockade of Berlin in 1948. Berlin was during much of the ColdWar a focal point of the conflict. The Soviets brutally supressed attempts by Eastern Europeans to overthrow Soviet imposed governments: East Germany (1953), Poland (1956), Hungary (1956), Czeselovakia (1978), and several other lesser outbreaks, especially in Poland. There were proxy wars and competition for influence in developing countries, many of which introduced Soviet command economics. There was also an arms race between the two super powers. After Stalin died in 1953, the Cold War became more unanced. There were periods of relaxation followed by resumed confrontation. The most dangerous point of tge Cold War was th Cuban Missle Criis (1962). There were efforts to persure detante during the 1970s. Unlike the other major conflicts in world history, in the end the Cold War was not settled by force of arms. It was the example of the West, especially the success of free market economics and political democracy that defeated Communism. [Mandelbaum]
The history of Communism in China is essentially China's 20th century history. A Republic was formed under Dr. Sun Yat-sen determined to reform China and build a government that could resist foreign incursions(1911). This set in motion a struggle for power among warlords, Nationalists and Communists. Chang Kai-shek and the nationalists emerged victorious. The Communists were not completely defeated, but after the Long March established themselves in northwestern China. Then the Jpanese attacked, first in Manchuria (1931) and then from bases in Manchuria the Japanese invaded China proper (1937). In many waysthis can be seen as the beginning of World War II. China fought Japan alone until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and British installations (1941) brought America and Britain into the War. China suffered terribly in the War. Much of the country and the major cities were occupied by the Japanese, but despite the commitment of most of the Imperial Army, the Japanese were unable to defeat the Nationalists who retired west to remote Chunking. These cities were occupied by Japan after. China was only liberated after the surrender of Japan (1945). Japan's defeat set in motion a renewed civil war between the Nationalists and Communists. The Communists emerged victorious and established the People's Republic (1948-49). Chang's Nationalists retired to Taiwan.
The Young Pioneer movement was the largest youth organizatioin in history. The movement was founded in Soviet Russia. It came to involve virtually all Soviet, eastern European, Chinese, as well as children in Cuba, Nort Korea,and Viet Nam for nearly half a century. It does not, however, appear to be as effective as either the Hitler Youth in totaliatarian NAZI Germany or the Scouts in many democratic countries. HBU knows of much less written about the Young Pioneers and there appear to be far fewer images available of the children in their Pioneer uniforms.
In the Soviet Union, the economic plan for each of the 16 republics was drafted centrally in Moscow for a command economy down and included the smallest workshop, factory, and collective farm. The entire nation followed the economic plan and were goverened by the same Party nomenklatura. The entire population was indocrinated with the same ideological ethos, studied the same school curriculum and school books. The entire nation tuned in to the same nightly newsbroadcast at 9:00 pm every evening.
The internal contridictions and efficencies of the Communist system and the desire of national groups for indepence led to the unraveling of the Stalin's Soviet empire, first in Poland (1989) and finally the Soviet Union itself (1991). The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) increased calls for a more determined U.S. posture which President Reagan pursued. Compeition with the United States put huge strains on the Soviet economy. Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to reform the failing economy and develop a more open political system. When these efforts failed, he refused to use the security forces to supress opposition in the Eastern European satellite states or the Soviet Union itself.
One of the remaining Communist countries is North Korea. A great deal has been written about Noth Korea's military program, especially its nuclear weapons program. Less is known about the humanitarian nightmare inside the country. Information is tightly controlled by the North Lorean Government. No one has precise statistics, but it is believed that anywhere from 1-3 million people have died in famine that began in the mid-1990s. Although there has been a draught and the country's economic policies have worsened an already dire situation, a mahor cause of the famine appears to be a result of Government policies simiklar to those persued by Stalin in the Ukranian famine. The Goverbment of Kim Jong Il seems determine to use food as a famine for those deemed the least loyal. Notabkly, relief agencies are not allowed to minitor food distribution in the most severely affected areas. North Koreans are desperate to flee their country. An estimated 0.3 million are in hiding in Chima, terrified that the Chinese will repatriate them forcefully, Another 0.2 million people are in the North Korean Gulag in which an estimated 0.4 million people have perished in the last three decades. Kim Il Sung, the current rulers's father set a goal of elininating class enenmies through three generations.
Mandelbaum, Michael. The Ideas that Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets in the 21st Century.
Pipes, Richard. VIXI: Memoirs of a Non-Belonger (Yale Iniversity Press: 2003), 264p. ("VIXI is Latin for "I lived." His parents managed to excape fom NAZI-occupied Poland. Most of their family perished in the gas chambers. Some describe him as the intelectual archetct of America's victory in the Cold War.)
Taubman, William. Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (Norton), 876p.
Webs, H.G. The Outline of History: The Hole Story of Man (Doubleday & Company: New York, 1971), 1103p.
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