War and Social Upheaval: The Russian-Turkish War (1877-78)


Figure 1.--Nikopol was for most of the medieval era a town in the Bulgarian Empire and an imprtant fort was built there (Nikopolis). The Ottomans and other Turlish people had been fighting the Byzantines for years. Bulgaria was the first Christian kindom encountered when the Ottomans crossed the Bosporus. With the fall of Tarnovo (1393), the last Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Shishman defended what remained of Chriatian Belgaria from the fortress of Nikopol. The Ottomans took the fort and captured Shisman (1395). Belastely Christian Europe attempted tp releave the Bulgars. Nikopol was the site of the Battle of Nicopolis, the last large-scale Crusade (1396). At Nicopolis the armies of Christian Europe led by Hungarian king Sigismund and French knights were defeated by the Ottomans under Bayezid I and his Serbian ally Stefan Lazarević. Under Ottoman rule, Nikopol developed into an important military and administrative center and became known as Sanjak, with a strong fort and Ottoman garison. It had prosperous economy and active spiritual and political life. Nikopol / Sanjak declined as the Ottoman Empire began its long decline (17th-18th centuries). Gradually Pleven became amore important regional center. The Battle of Nikopol was one of the first major engagements of the Russo-Turkish War. Nikopol is located in northern Bulgaria near the Danube. The Russians crossed the Danube and moved toward Nikopol. The Turkish High Command ordered Osman Pasha with a force from Vidin to oppose the Russian crossing. He intended to reinforce Nikopol and resist the Russians with the strong defenses there. The Russian IX Corps commanded by General Nikolai Kridener reached the city and bombarded the Ottoman garrison which surrendered before Osman could reach them (July 16, 1877). He this fell back to Plevna which set up the next battle. It was painted by Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky (1883). Put your cursor on the image to see the rest of the painting.

Russian and the Ottomans fought a series of Balkan Wars. In each the Russians gained ground. Yhe Ottoman Empire would have collpased early in the 19th century, had the major European powers not differed on how to carve it up. Concerned about the Russian succeeses, Britain and France intervened in the Crimean War to support Turkey. The last Russo-Turkish War occurred in 1877-78. It was also the most important one. Tsarist Russia in 1877 came to the aid of its fellow Christian Orthodox ally Serbia as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria in local rebellions against Ottoman rule. The Russians attacked diretly through Bulgaria toward Turkey and gained considerable success. After completing the Siege of Pleven, the Russians advance into Thrace, taking Adrianople (now Edirne, Turkey) in January 1878. The Ottomans conceded and in March 1878 agree to the Treaty of San Stefano with Russia. This treaty liberated Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro from Ottoman rule. It granted autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and created a Bulgaria (much larger than modern Bulgaria) under Russian protection. The great powers, especially Britain and Austria-Hungary, were concerned with the massive Russian gains confirmed by the treaty. Here the British were coflicted. Public opinion had been aroused against Ottoman attricities against Christians in the Balkans, yet Queen Victorian was stongly anti-Russian and many officials were concerned about the Russians mocing south toward Suez. The great powers this compelled Russia to accept more limited gains under the Treaty of Berlin (July 1878). Russia's gains from the war were sharply reduced.

Background

Russian and the Ottomans fought a series of Balkan Wars. In each the Russians gained ground. Yhe Ottoman Empire would have collpased early in the 19th century, had the major European powers not differed on how to carve it up. Concerned about the Russian succeeses, Britain and France intervened in the Crimean War to support Turkey. The last Russo-Turkish War occurred in 1877-78. It was also the most important one.

The War

Tsarist Russia in 1877 came to the aid of its fellow Christian Orthodox ally Serbia as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina and Bulgaria in local rebellions against Ottoman rule. The Russians attacked diretly through Bulgaria toward Turkey and gained considerable success. The Battle of Nikopol was one of the first major engagements of the Russo Turkish War. Nikopol is located in northern Bulgaria near the Danube. The Russians crossed the Danube and moved toward Nikopol. The Turkish High Command ordered Osman Pasha with a force from Vidin to oppose the Russian crossing. He intended to reinforce Nikopol and resist the Russians with the strong defenses there. The Russian IX Corps commanded by General Nikolai Kridener reached the city and bombarded the Ottoman garrison which surrendered before Osman could reach them (July 16, 1877). He this fell back to Plevna which set up the next battle. After completing the Siege of Pleven, the Russians advance into Thrace, taking Adrianople (now Edirne, Turkey) (January 1878).

Treaty of San Stefano

The Ottomans conceded and in March 1878 agree to the Treaty of San Stefano (March 3/February 19, Old Calendar, 1878) imposed on them by the Russians. This treaty liberated Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro from Ottoman rule. It granted autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and created a Bulgaria (much larger than modern Bulgaria) under Russian protection. This effectively ended Ottoman control over Christian populations in the Balkans. The most important provision established a hugh independent Bulgarian principality, which included most of Macedonia and extended to the Danube and from the Aegean to the Black Sea. The independence of christian nonarchies in Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was achieved. The boundaries of Serbia and Montenegro were extended so as to be contiguous. Romania was compelled to cede southern Bessarabia to Russia, receiving the Dobrudja from Turkey in exchange. Bosnia-Hercegovina which had a substantial moslem population was to be autonomous. Parts of Asiatic Turkey in the Caucuses were ceded to Russia. The Ottoman sultan pledged the saftey of his remaining Christian subjects.

Great Power Intervention

The Great Powers, especially Britain and Austria-Hungary, were concerned with the massive Russian gains confirmed by the Treaty of San Stefano. Here the British were coflicted. Public opinion had been aroused against Ottoman attrocities against Christians in the Balkans, yet Queen Victorian was stongly anti-Russian and many officials were concerned about the Russians moving south toward Suez. Austria-Hungary strongly objected to the treaty, especially the provosions which encouraged Slav nationalism. The British feared that the new hugh new Bulgarian state established under the treaty would become a Russian satellite and a future threat to Istanbul. They and the other great powers were determined to modify the Treaty of San Stefano.

Treaty of Berlin

he Great Powers met in Berlin 3 months later to resolve the territoriat issues created by the Russian territoirial gains and the Treaty of San Stefano. The Congress of Berlin was held June 13-July 13, 1878. The Congress was officially convened by Austrian Foreign Minister, Count Gyula Andrassy, in Berlin on June 13. The Congress was in fact dominated by erman chancellor Otto von Bismarck. After the Austro-Prussian War and Franco-Prussian War, Germany had become the dominant continental power. The Congress set about revising the San Stefano treaty. The result was the Treaty of Berlin, July 1878. Great Britain was apeased by 1) denying Russia the means to extend its naval power and 2) maintaining the Ottoman Empire as a European power. The Congress wawarded Cyprus was to Britain which saw it as useful in the defense of the Suez Canal. Austria-Hungary was apeased by allowing it to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina extending its influence in the Balkans. Ottoman inability to meet its financial obligations was another issue. The Congress decided to entrust Ottomon finances to an international commission composed of the creditor nations. The Congress compelled Russia to accept more limited gains, substantially reducing the gains that it had made under the San Stefano treaty. The Russians dis insist after 500 years of Ottoman rule on independence for Bugaria, Montenegro, and Serbia. The boundaries of Bulgaria, however, were substantially scaled back. Russia was displeased, but not preapred to take on the Great Powers in another Crimean War. The Congress also failed to adequately account for the national aspirations of the Balkan peoples. These two failures almost guarnateed further Balkan crisis. Bismark's role at the Congress was subtle, but effective. Central to the Bismarkian system was ro prevent an alliance between Russia and France that would force Germant to fight a war on two fronts. Thus while supporting the Austrains to gain Bosnia he made it clear that the Dual Alliance with Austria was purely defensive in narture. In addition he supported substantial gains for the Russians and the new Christian monarchies in the Balkans. He also supported important British demands, again with the backdrop of not wanting to push the British into an alliance with France. This careful balancing of competing interests was virtually undone by Kaisser Wilhelm II who dismissed Bismarck 2-years after rising to the thrine in 1888.









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Created: June 24, 2002
Last updated: 10:58 PM 8/12/2016