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The Ottoman Empire was one of the large multi-ethnic empires that dominated much of Europe in the 19th century. Throught the 19th century, the Empire's European holding steadily declined. Even so at the onset of World war I, Turks wre still a minority in the Empire, but Turkish nationalism was growing, as was the desire to replace the Empire with a Turkish state based on ethnic Turks. Many countries ecperienced profound political change after the War. In Turkey in came before the War. The inability of the Sultan to reverse Ottoman losses in the Balkans and Caucauses and the losses in wars with the Balkan States and Italy (1911-13) undermined the Empiore and strengrthen the Young Turks. The result was major political change, Turkey's entry into World War I, and the Armenian Genocide. We do not yet have much information on civilian living conditions in the Ottoman Empire during the War, but believe that deteriorated bady because of declines in boh food production and the economy in general. The war for the most part was fought in the non-Turkish Arab regions of the Empire (Arabia, Palestine, and Mesoptamia). The Allied Galipoli offensive was contained the Russians only entered the eastern fringe of Anatolia. The Empire's Anatolian heartland was untouched even when the Allies after the Bulgarians capitulated, occupied Istanbul (Constaninole) (1918). The conscription of Turlish opeasants from the Anatolian hearland heavy war losses meant that a significant labor shortage developed in Anatolia. The War literaly destoyed the Ottoman economy which had a liberal, multi-ethnic character and layed the foudation for a Turkified economy.
The chronic weakness of the Ottoman Empire and the disolutory leadership of the sultan inspired progressive university students and military cadets to conspire against the Government. This had to be done secretly as political activity was not permitted. Thus the Young Turks were organized as a secret society with a cell organization. The Young Turks seized power from Sultan Abdul Hamid II. They convinced him to restore Parliament(1908). They retained the Sultan as a figurehead. The Young Turks were officislly known as the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). Following a failed counter-revolution to restore the authority of the sultan, The CUP officially deposed and exiled Hamid (1909). They replaced him with Mehmed V, a yoiunger brother but essentially a non-entity. The Young Turks had some liberal ideals. They forced Sultan Abdul Hamid to end absolutionist rule and approved a constitution as well as installed a liberal government. Many also believed in a more ethnically pure Turkish state as well as envisioned connections with ethnic Turks in Central Asia. The reforms, however, had only limited impact on the Ottoman state. The Ottomans suffered other defeats in a war with Italy (1911–1912) and the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). Although Mehmed was a figurehead, but the military reverses were still blamed on him as sultan. The CUP seized power in the midst of the Second Balkan War (1913). A triumverate emerged as the new leadership. This included: Enver Psha (Minister of War), Talat Pasha (Minister of Interior), and Djemal Pasha (Marine Minister). Germany had cultivated close relations with the Ottomans. To address its military weakness, Enver Pasha requested German assistance in reorganize the Ottoman Army. The Germans diuspatched a military mission headed by General Otto Liman von Sanders (December 1913). After the outbreak of World War I, the CPU conducted secret diplomatic negotiations with the Germans and decided on the basis of initial German victories, especially against Russia, to enter the War as a member of the Central Powers.
More than a million mostly Christian Armenians were murdered by Ottoman authorities during World War I. Clara Barton led the first Red Cross relief effort conducted outside the United States. While most of the killings occurred during the War, Ottoman actions against the Armenians began in the 1890s. Western newspapers carried articles about "barbaric Mohammedans" murdering Christian martyrs during 1894-96. The killings provoked wide-spread international contamination, but no country intervened to stop the killings. Another series of pogroms occurred in 1909. The Ottomans entered World war I on the side of the Central Power (Germany and Austria-Hungary) in late 1914. The wide-spread, organized genocide against the Armenians began in 1915. Accounts on the numbers of Armenians vary. The estimate of 1.0 million is often used,but some accounts are as high as 1.5 million. [Balakian] The Ottomans used World war I as the NAZIs used World War II as a cover for the killings. The Turkish Government denied at the time and Turkish Governments even today continue to deny that the killings took place and were coordinated by Turkish authorities.
We do not yet have much information on civilian living conditions in the Ottoman Empire during the War, but believe that deteriorated bady because of declines in boh food production and the economy in general. The war for the most part was fought in the non-Turkish Arab regions of the Empire (Arabia, Palestine, and Mesoptamia). The Allied Galipoli offensive was contained the Russians only entered the eastern fringe of Anatolia. The Empire's Anatolian heartland was untouched even when the Allies after the Bulgarians capitulated, occupied Istanbul (Constaninole) (1918). The problem for the Turks was that as a result of the Balkan Wars, the Empire had lost in European provinces and the ZArabs were unreliable. thus the Ottoman Army had to be recrited from the Anatolian peasantry, which at the onset of the War had been only 40 percent of the population. There were substantial losses on the various fronts. Total deaths have been estimated at 0.8 milliomn. Thus the civilians only on the perifery were caught in thecross-fire of war, few families escaped the loss of loved ones. The battlefield losses were basd enough, but poor logistical instrastructre and grossly iunadequate medical services meant that more Ottoman soldiers died of diswease than battlefield losses.
Anatolia was self-sufficent in food production. Thus the Turks could have avoided the food shortages that some other countries did, especially the Germans and Russdians. (France was also self-suffien in food and the Americans had access to American and Canadian grains.) The conscription of Turlish peasants from the anatolian heartland mean that a significant labor shortage developed in Anatolia. [Finkel, p. 541.] This was exacerbated by the heavy war losses. The Allies (British and French) blockade prevented imports. Supplied from Germany could be received by rail, but these were mostly military supplied, not food which was in increasingly short supply as the War progressed.
The War literaly destoyed the Ottoman economy which had a liberal, multi-ethnic character and layed the foudation for a Turkified economy. The Young Turk CPU Government pursued two basic strategies, The first was to cancel the financial capitulastions and debts owned to foreign countries. The second was to seize the assetts of non-Muslims. Christianns and Jews had played a major role in the Ottoman economy. Many Ottoman cities had major non-Muslim populations of various ethnic groups. The assetts were then transferred to Muslims, especially but not entirely ethnic Turks. The most obvious action was moving agasinst the Armenians. Government contracts were offered to Muslims, some of who had received non-Muslim property. [Finkel, p. 536.] This shift put ecomomic assetts in reliable hands, but it was disusruptive to the already weakened Ottoman economy.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire (Basic Books: New Yoprk, 2005),660p.
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