Figure 1.--This 1918 U.S. Army photograph was captioned, "Montenegran boys eating food given them by American soldiers." The boys were apparently evacuated to France as a result of the Austria occupation of their country. The Serbian and Montenegrin Army when they evacuated took boys (but not girls) with them (1915). Conditions on Corfu were so bad that many of the boys were evacuated to Allied countries like Englandd and France. Source: U.S. Army Signal Corps No. 153238.

Montenegro with a largely ethnic Serbian population was still a part of the declining Ottoman Empire at the turn-of-the 20th century. Knjaz Nikola proclaimed an independent kingdom in Cetinje (1910). He became Nikola I. The common ethnicity meant there were close ties with already indpendent Serbia. The Montenegrans joined Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria in the First Balkan War (1912). The vMontenegrans suffered substabtial casualties. The Balkan War formally secured Montenegro's independence from the Ottoman Empire. When Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia (August 1914). The small Montenegrin army fought with the Serbs. They helped occupy northern Kosovo which with the Cental Powers offensive (October 1915) provided an escape route for the Serbian Army. Montenegro like Serbia was over run and occupied by the Central Powers (January 1916). We do not have details on Austrian occupation at this time. Nikola I signed the Corfu Declaration (July 1917). It afirmed the unification of Montenegro with Serbia after the War. King Nichola was a strong believer of unification with Serbia to form a great Serbian state. After the Austrian evacuation (October 1918) and the King's return to liberated Montenegro, he proclaimed unificatiion with Serbia (November 1918). King Nicola quarled with King Alexander of Serbia over who should be the monarch of a united Serbia. King Alexander with a much larger army was able to engineer the dethroning and exiled of Nicola.

Independence

Montenegro with a largely ethnic Serbian population was still a part of the declining Ottoman Empire at the turn-of-the 20th century. Knjaz Nikola proclaimed an independent kingdom in Cetinje (1910). He became Nikola I. The common ethnicity meant there were close ties with already indpendent Serbia.

First Balkan War (1912)

The Montenegrans joined Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria in the First Balkan War (1912). The Montenegrans suffered substabtial casualties. The Balkan War formally secured Montenegro's independence from the Ottoman Empire. The War, however, was a destabilising factor, Montenegro made some territorial gains, especially dividing Sandžak with Serbia (May 1913). The new territory, howver included many Muslim Albanians who had no allegiance to a Montenegrin state. the Montenegrins lost an estimated 10,000 lives in taking the town from the largely Albanian Ottoman forces. And despite the losses, the Great Powers forced Montenegro to turn over Skadar to Esad Pasha's Albania.

Declaration of War (July-August 1914)

After the assasination of Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia to punish it (July 1914). This was the spark which ignited World War I. Montenegro had close ties to Serbia. Austria declared war on Serbia, but not Montenegro (July 28). The Austrians who were still on their own, wanted to keep Montegro out of the War. They even offered to return Shkoder to Montenegro if King Nichola remained neutral. Skadar had been a Motenegrian city, but lost to the albabins as a result of the First Balkn War (1912). Shkoder is a city and municipality in northwestern Albania adjacent to Montenegro amd serbia. Shkoder was not only an important city in Balkan terms, but was strategically located close to the Adriatic coast and thus access to Italian ports. It also had land-routes into t cities and towns into the Balkn interior. The Austrian offer, however, was less attractive than it sounds. Shkoder was not Austrian territory, put part of the new country of Albania. King Nichola decided, however, to stand with Serbia. He declared war on Austria (August 7) and Germany (August 9). Yhe austrian Army at the tome was already driving into Serbia.

First Austrian Assault on Serbia (July 1914)

he Austrian punishment campaign against Serbia negan with a declaration of war (July 28). This had profound implications which are still being felt today. Russia issued a mobilization order to come to Serbia 's assistance. The Germans in response activated thec Scliffen Plan by invading Belgium to knock France out of the war before the Russians had mobilized (Sugust 4), And within days Belgium, Britain, France, and Russia were at war. The small Montenegrin Army was more of a police force than an army. They were not prepared for a modern war which was now in motion. To coordimate operations Serbian General Bozidar Jankovic was named head of the High Command of the Serbian and Montenegrin armies. The Serbs did have an real army, but not as well equipped as the Austrian Army. To the surprise of many, the Serbs were able to sucessfully resist the larger Austrian Army and stopped the Austrins before Belgrade. The Montenegrins helped the Serbs occupy northern Kosovo, including Sandjak. The Austrians committed a separate army for an offensive against Montenegro. The initial objecive was to prevent a junction of the Serbian and Montenegrin armies. As Serbia and Montenegro had a common border, this meant driving a wedge between the two countries. The Serbs and Montengrians managed to stop the Austrian drive and the two armies joined up. And from their heavily fortified position around Mount Lovćen, the Montenegrins ponded the Austrians in Kotor. The Austrians suceeded in capturing Pljevlja, but the Montenegrin took Budva from the Austrians. The Montengrins retook Pljevlja. The Montenegrins launched a major offensive, but made little progres (August 10). The stunning Serbian victory at Cer (August 15-24) force the Austrians to divert forces from the Montenegrin front.

Second Austrian Offensive (September 1914)

The Montengrins not only resisted the Austrians again in the second invasion of Serbia (September 1914), and almost reached Sarajevo in Bosnia. The Germans were not yet involved in the fighting.

Fighting the Austrians (1915)

The Serbs stopped the Austrians before Belgrade, but this was the beginning of the war in the Balkans. Ansd the Montenegrins faced the prospect of a long war withthe lrge, well-equipped Austrian Army. The Serbs abd Allies tried to help. The Serbs turned over 30 artillery pieces and provided financial assistance -- 17 million dinars. France also assisted Montenegro. They deployed a colonial detachment of 200 men who were stationed in the the capital--Cetinje. They also supplied two radio-stations - located on top of Mount Lovćen and in Podgorica. Radio was still relativeky new tecnology and provided important communications capabilities. Lovćen was the most important strategic pont of the Montegrin defenses. France also supplied a wide range of military equipment and food through the port of Bar. Austrian battleships and submarines blockaded the port (1915). Italy after entering the War attempted to supply Montenegro attempting to run supplied through the Austrian blockade. They attempted to use Shengjin-Bojana-Lake Skadar roye through Albania. Austrian agents paid and equipped Albanian irregulars to attick the Italian convoys.

Third Central Powers Offensive (October 1915)

Offensive against Serbia (October 1915)

The Austrians after failing twice to defeat Serbia and Montenegro, prepared athird offensive, this time with German and Bulgarian allies. The offensive was focused on serbiaThe Cental Powers offensive aided by Bulgaria entering the war (October 1915) broke Serbian resistance. An Austro-German offensive from the north was coordinated with a Bulgarian offensivee in the south. The Austrians primarily attacked the Serbs, but sent a small force against Montenegro. The Serbian Army was outnumbered abd attacked on two fronts. Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian and German armies cracked the Serbin front wide open. They finally overran Serbia (December 1915). They did not, however suceed in totally destroying the serbianbArmy. King Peter I led a retreating across the Albanian mountains--the Great Serbian Retreat. Pursued by the advancing Austriansand Germans in the nrth and Bulgarians in the South, the Serbs retreated retreat through Kosovo to the Adriatic coast where Allied ships were waiting to evacuate them to Corfu. The earlier Montenegrin-Serbian occupation of Kosovo provided an escape route for the Serbian Army.

Offensive against Montenegro

Montenegro b;ocked the most direct route into Albania to block the Serbian retreat. The small Montenegrian Army led by Janko Vukotic fought the Battle of Mojkovac to protect the retreating Serbians (January 6-7, 1916). The ustrians with the Serbs defeated were able to focus on the small Montenegrin Army. With the Serbs defeated, the Austrins focused on the Montegrins. A 500-gun artillery barrage opening the final offensive against Montenegro (August 8, 1916). A force composed of 45,000 Austrian, 5,000 Bosnian Muslims, and 3,000 ethnic Italians serving in the Austro-Hungarian army attacked Montenegro. Within 48 hours the Montenegrina forces had been driven from their principal fortress at Mount Lovcen -- 'Adriatic Gibraltar'. Monenegro's capital, Cetinje, was taken (January 11, 1917). Montenegro surrendered (January 18). Some of the Motenegrin Army was able to join the Serbs on Corfu.

Austrian Occupation (1915-18)

Montenegro like Serbia was over run and occupied by the Central Powers (January 1916). And for the ret of the war was occupied by the Austrins. The Austrians appointged military officer Viktor Weber Edler von Webenau served as the military governor of Montenegro (1916-17). He was replace by Heinrich Clam-Martinic until the Allies liberated Montenegro. We do not have details on Austrian occupation at this time. We believe, however, that conditions were very difficult with severe food shortages. War damage and the losses of me in the fighting, retreat, and Austrian conscription as in other countrues affected the rural work force and this food production. The Austrians drafted Montenegrins into their Army. They were shiftd to the Russian front because the Austrians were unsure about their loyalty.

Governent-in-Exile

King Nicholas fled to Italy (January 1916) and then to France. A government-in-exile was set up in Bordeaux.

Corfu Declaration (July 1917)

Nikola I signed the Corfu Declaration (July 1917). Corfu was an Adriatic island where the Serbian Army was protected by Allied naval power. It afirmed the unification of Montenegro with Serbia after the War. King Nichola was a strong believer of unification with Serbia to form a great Serbian state.

Salonika Front (1917-18)

The Allies liberated Serbia from the south fter Greece entered the war. The Serbian Army shifted from Corfu participated in the effort. Montenegrin soldiers formed part of a Yugoslav Division with the Serbs. This was one more step toward the creation of a unified Yugoslav state. Casualties

Some 3,000 Montenegrin soldiers died in the War.

Unification

After the Austrian evacuation (October 1918) and the King's return to liberated Montenegro, he proclaimed unificatiion with Serbia (November 1918). There are different accounts of what followed. On version claims that King Nicola quarled with King Alexander of Serbia over who should be the monarch of a united Serbia. King Alexander with a much larger army was able to engineer the dethroning and exiled of Nicola. Another version has a newly convened National Assembly of Podgorica (Podgorička skupština, Подгоричка скупштина), charged th Кing of seeking a separate peace with the Central Powers and consequently deposed him, banned his return, and decided that Montenegro should join the Kingdom of Serbia (December 1, 1918). Not all Montenefians favored union with Serbia. The result was the Christmas Uprising (January 7, 1919).

American Aid (1916-22?)

Serbia and Montenegro were two of the countries most devestated by the War and the Central Powers occupation. The Allies were not able to get supplies into Serbia and Montenegro. America which was still neutral could. Dr. Charles B. Penrose helped organize A Montenegin Committee in America (January 1916). It acted much like Belgian Relief to provide ememerncy aid to the war torn country. Mrs. John C. Groome served as Chairman. Queen Milena award her the deciration of the Montenegrin Red Cross (PWHC). One American Red Cross worker began his Red Cross service in Pech and Jacovitza, Montenegro, on June 18, 1915. The journal describes the cleaning, fumigating, sterilizing, and whitewashing of local hospitals and public building as well vaccinations, bathing facilities, and other sanitation work. He went onntoworknin Serbian until being ovrrun bythe advancing Bulgarian Army. [Osborn] When America declared war (April 1917), these deliveries could not longer reach Montenegro. This only changed with liberation at the end of the War. Much of the relief supplies including food, meivine, and warm clothing came from America. The American Red Cross (ARC) played a major role in the relief efforts. The ARC reports, "In the fall of 1918 a commission was sent to Greece, and early in 1919, with the opening up of large territories occupied by the Central Powers during the war, units were sent to North Serbia, Roumania, Montenegro and Albania to combat conditions beyond description. However, the work of these units was hardly well under way by February 28, 1919, hence a record of things accomplished must be omitted from this report. The appropriations for the Balkan States recorded on page 66 include $2,550,489.99 for expenditure by these units." [ARC] The $2.6 million may not sound like much today, bit it was a substanial sum in 1919.

Sources

American Red Cross (ARC). "A statement of finances and accomplishmentsfor the period July 1, 1917 to February 28, 1919 Ch. 5 Work elsewhee overseas" (October 1919).

Osborn, Stanley Hart. "A diary of the American Red Cross Sanitary Commission to Serbia 1915-16, (1915-17). Osvorn had to leave Sebia and Montenegron after the two ckuntries were occupied by he Central Powers.

Philadelphia War History Committeee (PWHC). Philadelphia in the World War, 1914-1919 (1922).

Created: 7:00 AM 2/28/2011
Last updated: 12:04 PM 10/15/2015