Figure 1.--We do not know where this image was taken in Eastern Europe, we believe probably in what would now be Poland or Hungary. This rural scene is undated, but we suspect it was taken about 1910 before World War. The children here helping to take in the harvest are barefoot and wear ragged clothing, but they look well fed. Note that all the boys have long pants. Image courtesy of the MD collection. Click on the image for an elarged view of some of the boys.

Americans generally focus on Western Europe. It was, however, in Eastern Europe that the War was to be generated and it was Eastern Europe that was most affected by the War. The map of Europe before World War I looked very different than Europe today. Much of Europe was part of three large empires (German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian). This included the modern states of the Belarus, Bosnia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland, and Ukraine. Several new mostly weak and unstable countries or dependencies (Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania) had been created from the earlier breakup of the Ottoman Empire. In recent years even more new states have appaered from the former Ottoman territories (Macedonia and Moldavia). Most of these countries, including areas of the German Empire, were still largely agricultural, in some cases almost feudal. Large areas had still been vurtually untouched by the Industrial Revolution. The rural peasantry and relatively small urban working class was often very poor with families eckeing out a very meager existence. Urban workers in many cases lived in almost Dickesian squalor. Natioanlist sentiment was strictly suppressed in these empires. World War I which destroted all four of these great empires was to unleash long-supressed nationalist sentiment throughout Eastern Europe. Winston Churchill saw the destruction and the introduction of dangerous American principles in the Versailles Treaty such as national self determination as one of the causes of the rise of brutish Communist, Fascist, and NAZI totalitarianism after the War. Adding the volitile mix was the rise of Soviet Communism in Russia after the War and its appeal to many agricultural and industrial workers.

Crucible for War

Americans generally focus on Western Europe. It was, however, in Eastern Europe that the War was to be generated and it was Eastern Europe that was most affected by the War. Europe was dominted by three empires (Autria-Hungary, German, and Russian) with a fourth empire (the Ottomons) to the south looking to regain lost European territory. Whike this made the pre-War map look neat and tidy, these empires were composed of many restive nationalities. And in the case of Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans, the core nationality was a minority. Throughout the 19th century, the various national ethnic grops were becoming increasingly asserive, demnading more autonomy and even independence. The empires respmded differntly. Rusia and Germany pursued assimilation and adoption of the core national language and ethoi--Geminzation and Rusification. The Autro-Hungarian Empire resoponded in a more moderate way and in many cases acceoting more autonomy. They of couese had the grratesy problem. The core Austrian (German) population was very small whih is why it became a dual empire with the Hungarians grnted inperil statu. Also they faced the rbs to the south wjich becme increasingly militant, espilly after Austria annxed Bosnia wuth a subtantial Serb population (1909). This would provide the spark that launched the War--a Serbian terrotist assainated the Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Saraevo, Bosnia (1914).

The Empires

The map of Europe before World War I looked very different than Europe today. Much of Europe was part of three large empires (German, Russian, and Austro-Hungarian). This included the modern states of the Belarus, Bosnia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland, and Ukraine. Several new mostly weak and unstable countries or dependencies (Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania) had been created from the earlier breakup of the Ottoman Empire. In recent years even more new states have appaered from the former Ottoman territories (Macedonia and Moldavia). It was in short a huge part of Europe. Chacellor Bismarck had managed to maintain a peace between these empires even though there were substantial differences between the Tsarist ans Ausrian Empires. . Kaiser Wilhelm II rose to the throne (1888). He rejected this cautious policy and Bismarck was forced out only a few years later. As long as the three wmpires maintained friendly relations, a major war ijn Europe was impssible. With the Three Emperors League abandoned, the Russians signed an alliance with the French. This dividd Europe and made war a real if unthinkable possibility. And gradually the power elites in the imperal govrnments began to see war as a way of settling accounts. [Buttar] France with the Russian alliance could treat with Germany on a more eqyal basis. And the national minorities increasingly saw war as offering the possibility of independence.

Economies

Most of these countries, including areas of the German Empire, were still largely agricultural, in some cases almost feudal. Large areas had still been vurtually untouched by the Industrial Revolution. The rural peasantry and relatively small urban working class was often very poor with families eckeing out a very meager existence. Urban workers in many cases lived in almost Dickesian squalor.

Nationalist Sentiment

Natioanlist sentiment was strictly suppressed in these empires. World War I which destroted all four of these great empires was to unleash long-supressed nationalist sentiment throughout Eastern Europe. These would lead to violence and eventually large scale killing. The NAZI killings are the best known, but Soviet mass murder as well as incidents throughout the small states of Eastern Europe also occurred.

The Jews

Most of the world's Jewish population at the time of World War I still lived in Eastern Europe, largely in the Tsarist Pale of Settlementat. There were about 4 million Jews in Eastern Europe. Some had emigrated west, both to America and Eatrern Europe. THe United Sttes ould bdcome a major cenbter of Jewery. These Jews including the Jews in Germny and Astria-Hungary had been largely assimilated. There was anti-Semitim as evidenced by the Drefus Case in France (1894). Jews in the West suffered various forms of descrimination--often described as 'polite' descriminstuon. Thery were, however, for the most psrt correctly treated, tolerated, and emancipated. This was not the casse in the Tsarist Pale of Settlement where their lives were severly constrained by a wide range of discrimnitory regulations making it diffucult to pursue most occupations. As a result, most lived in extreme poverty. Few Tsarist Jews were able to assimilate even if they wanted to do so. And there was always the danger of the occassionl pogroms. You cannot say Russian Jews because the Pale of Settlement was primrily Lithuanua, Latvia, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine. Jews were prohibited from living in most of Russia. This is why so many of Jews emigrating to the United States came froim Tsarist Eastern Europe. When World War I erupted (August 1914), the Eastern Front was fought in the area with a large popultion of Jews. [Barnavi] The Russians attacked into RastPrissia, but were defeated and then the fighting moved into Poland with its large population of Jews (1915). The Russians were more sucessful as they attacked into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, occupying large areas of Galicia with a substnyisl popultion of Jews (1914-15). The Russian did not trust their oiwn Jews, let alone the Austrian Jews. They proceededto deport some 0.6 million Jews from the front. The Tsarist soldiers abd officials were often brutal and the depotationds were done in the most deplorable conditions. Abd the deoortations were not only from occuoied SAudtruan territiry, but Jews from Tsarist territiry near tyhe frint as well. It was not only an economic catastrophe for the Jews invioved, but many perished as a result of the deplprable conditions. As news of this leaked out, Jews around the world, especially in America, established welfare organizations to aid the impoverisdhed Jews. Jews as other citizens enlisdted in their national armies. This included Tsarist Jews, but when the deportatiins began Jewish loyalties began in Eastern Europe to swung to the Central Powers. Despiite the enlistments and patriotic service, accusations of evasion and of profiteering emerged, basiclly manifestation of tranditionsl anti-Semitism. There were official inquiries in both Germany and Russia which led nowhere. German officials tried to exploit the anti-Tsarist sentiment, especially in America which was as mosdt cane from Tsarist Russia were already strongly anti-Tsarist. The British without a substantisl Jewish population, but aware of the American Jewish population, responded with the Balfour Declaration (1917). One result was increased support for the Zionist movement.

Post-War Eastern Europe

Winston Churchill saw the destruction and the introduction of dangerous American principles in the Versailles Treaty such as national self determination as one of the causes of the rise of brutish Communist, Fascist, and NAZI totalitarianism after the War. This volitile mix began with the rise of Soviet Communism in Russia after the War and its appeal to many agricultural and industrial workers as well as idealistic intelectuals (1917). Mew borders fuel ethnic pasions in Estern Europe (Czechoslovakia, Hunary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia). This was a factor with the rise of Fascism. Fascism began with Mussolini's seizure of power in Italy (1922). The NAZIs and even more virulent strain of Fascism seized power in Germany (1933). Wide spread killing began with the Soviet Union during the Russian Civil War, but reached an unbelieveable level with the Soviet engineered Ukranian Famine (1931-32), Stalin's way of destroying the Ukramnian pesantry. Mass killing escalated duting World War II in the area of Eastern Europe between NAZI Germany and the Soviet Union (1939-45). One author calls it the the Bloodlands. [Snyder]

Sources

Barnavi, Eli. ed. A Hisdtotrical Atlas of the Jewish People (Schocken Books).

Buttar, Prit. Collision of Empires: The War on the Eastern Front, 1914 (2014). 488p.

Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (Basic Books: New York, 2010), 524p.

Created: January 31, 2003
Last updated: 2:49 AM 8/7/2021