World War I: The Middle East--Egypt and Palestine (1915-18)

World War I Egypt Palestine campaigns
Figure 1.-- British Primeminister LLoyd George gave command of the Biritish Armybin Egypt to Edmund Allenby with instructions to take Jerusalem by Christmas. Following the Battle of Mughar Ridge (November 1917), the battered Ottoman 7th and 8th Armies wihdrew from Jerusalem. Here the Ottoman Mayor came forwrd with a white flag to srrender the city. Allenby was uninterested in metting with him. Here two unenthusiastic junior officers finally accepted the surrender of perhaps the most fough-over city in history. Thus ended four centuries of Ottoman rule.

The Ottomans after entering the War launched the first Middle Eastern campaign, an effort to take the Suez aCnal. Suez was a vital lifeline of the British Empire. The Germans pressed the Ottomans to attack. The Ottomans thus launched the campaign. The Ottoman campaign was organized by Minister of Marine Djemal Pasha advised by German Chief of Staff Kress von Kressenstein. The Ottomans attacked across the Sinai Peninsula from their base at Beersheba (January 14, 1915). The Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force consisred of 25,000 men. They sought to strike across Siani and surprise the British and seize the Canal before the British had fully prepared their defenses. The problem for the Ottomans ws there were no roads or rail lines to Suez. They had to move 300 km across the formidable Siani Desert. This proved to be a major impediment, probanly saving the British who were not yet well prepared. As a result, the attack across Sinai failed and the small British force in Egypt repulsed the Ottomans (1915). The British began building up forces in Egypt. They made Egypt into a training ground for the Empire's reserve of Commonwealth and Indian troops. This was delayed by the demands of the Galipoli campaign. The Ottoman forces launched a second attack across the Sinai (August 1916). They were again repulsed, this time at Romani. These two offensives did not result in heavy casualties on either side by the standards of World War I. One aspect of the British-Ottoman fighting in Egypt and Palestine, was an effort to assist the Arabs struggling for independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Arabs at the time of World War I were the largest minority in the Ottoman Empire, largely because the Empire had lost most of its Christian Balkans territory. The Arabs used the War as a way to throw off centuries of Ottoman rule. The result was the Arab Revolt. The British despite a substantial buildup, failed to take the heavily defended Ottoman fort at Gaza (March 1917). Gaza proved to be a tough nut. The British failed again at Gaza (April 1917). This resulted in major changes to the British command. After the two failurea at Gaza, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George recalled Sir Archibald Murray and replaced him with Edmund Allenby, one of the most competent British commandr of the War and nicknaned 'Bloody Bull' (June 1917). He was ordered to capture Jerusalem by Christmas 1917. He was given substabtial reinforcements. Allenby faced the formidable Ottoman line at Gaza-Beersheba, The Ottoman line was capably overseen the German commander Erich von Falkenhayn, the former army Chief of Staff who had earlier orcestrated the Verdun offensive, a pivotal battles of the War. Allenby renewed the offensive into Palestine. The Arab Army, a mobile irregular formation, was a distraction the Ottomans had to deal with. Larence disappered into the vast Arabian desert (Spring 1917). The British heard little from him and then suddently Aqaba fell (July 6). This meant the British could supply the Arab Army with modern weapons. Alenby fought the Third Battle of Gaza and the Battle of Beersheba at the same time (October-November 1917). The British Egyptian Expeditionary Force smashed through the Ottoman lines and finally captured Gaza. The climatic battle for Palestine was fought at Mughar Ridge and Junction Station (November 1917). Jerusalem fell (Decembr 8), two weeks before Allenby's deadline. The final battle of the campaign was fought at Megiddo, the site of a famous ancient battle (September-October 1918). Allenby's masterful handling of his forces is said to have presaged German Workd War II Blitkrieg tactics. Megiddo broke the back of Ottoman armies in the Levant. The British advanced to Damascus with the Arab Army on its flank. This ended Arab-Allied unity. The Arabs expected independence. The British and French wanted to control the areas liberated from Ottoman rule.

The Suez Canal

Suez is an Egyptian port at the northern-most point of the Red Sea. And it is located only about 100 miles from the Mediterranean coast. Thus since ancient times trade routes developed between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Frenchman Ferdinand De Lesseps visited Egypt (1832). He began to plan a project to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, but little progress was made until 1854 when he visited Egypt again. The Viceroy of Egypt, Said Pasha, granted him a concession for his proposed canal. With the backing of Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie, he raised half the funds by popular subscription in France. Work was begun in 1859 and the canal was formally opened in 1869. De Lesseps who surmounted enormous engineering, diplomatic, and administrative difficulties was awarded many honors and widely proclaimed throughout France. The Canal itself had a significant impact on world trade and for Britain helped to strengthen the connection with their main colony--India. It thus became a critically important Imperial lifeline that Britain would defend in three major wars. This had been a factor even before the Canal was built. Napoleon launched an offensive in Egypt even before beginning his great coninental campaigns (1798-1801). There were three major campaigns involving the Suez Canal after it was built. The Central Powers (Ottomans with German assistance) tried to take it from the east in World War I (1915-16). The Axis powes (Italians and Germans) attempted to take it from the west in World War II (1940-42). Egyptian President Gamul Abdul Nassar rose to power promising to destroy Israel. He seized the Canal, an action apllaued throughout the Arab world. In a coordinated action, the Israelis struck first at the cEgyptian armies preparing to invade Israel (1956). The British and French used this as an exuse to seize the Canal, but were forced to give it back when the United States refused to support thecaction. The Canal also feartured in subsequent Middle Eastern wars and for a time became the border between Israel and Egypt. The development of Middle Eastern oil increased the importance of the Canal. Arab instability, however, reduced the reliability of the Canal. Thus the Western countries developed super-tankers which reduced the importance of the Canal.

First Ottoman Offensive (1915)

The Ottomans after entering the War launched the first Middle Eastern campaign, an effort to take the Suez Canal. Suez was a vital lifeline of the British Empire. The Germans pressed the Ottomans to attack. The Ottomans thus launched the campaign. The Ottoman campaign was organized by Minister of Marine Djemal Pasha advised by German Chief of Staff Kress von Kressenstein. The Ottomans attacked across the Sinai Peninsula from their base at Beersheba (January 14, 1915). The Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force consisred of 25,000 men. They sought to strike across Siani and surprise the British and seize the Canal before the British had fully prepared their defenses. The problem for the Ottomans ws there were no roads or rail lines to Suez. They had to move 300 km across the formidable Siani Desert. This proved to be a major impediment, probanly saving the British who were not yet well prepared. As a result, the Ottoman attack across Sinai failed and the small British force in Egypt was able to repulse the Ottomans (1915).

British Buildup

The British began building up forces in Egypt. They made Egypt into a training ground for the Empire's reserve of Commonwealth and Indian troops. This was delayed by the demands of the Galipoli campaign.

Galipoli (1915)

The Allied Galipoli Campaign is common seen as a great blunder and failure. It certainly failed. And launching an offensive ithout the capaikity of winnkng mkfgt rightly be seen as a blunfer. The strategic concept bhinf Galipoli, was however, hrdly a blunder. Russia was vital to the Allied war effort and extre=me efforts to save Fussia by getting supplies through to the poorly equipped Russins was an objective of the highest order.

Second Ottoman Offensive (1916)

The Ottoman forces launched a second attack across the Sinai (August 1916). They were again repulsed, this time at Romani. These two offensives did not result in heavy casualties on either side by the standards of World War I.

First British Offensive: Gaza (March-April 1917)

The British despite a substantial buildup, failed to take the heavily defended Ottoman fort at Gaza (March 1917). Gaza proved to be a tough nut. The British failed again at Gaza (April 1917).

The Arab Revolt

One aspect of the British-Ottoman fighting in Egypt and Palestine, was an effort to assist the Arabs struggling for independence from the Ottoman Empire. The Arabs at the time of World War I were the largest minority in the Ottoman Empire, largely because the Empire had lost most of its Christian Balkans territory. The Arabs used the War as a way to throw off centuries of Ottoman rule. The result was the Arab Revolt. The Arab Army, a mobile irregular formation, was a distraction the Ottomans had to deal with. Larence disappered into the vast Arabian desert (Spring 1917). The British heard little from him and then suddently Aqaba fell (July 6). This meant the British could supply the Arab Army with modern weapons, includung armored cars.

Edmund Allenby

This resulted in major changes to the British command. After the two failurea at Gaza, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George recalled Sir Archibald Murray and replaced him with Edmund Allenby, one of the most competent British commandr of the War and nicknaned 'Bloody Bull' (June 1917). He was ordered to capture Jerusalem by Christmas 1917. He was given substabtial reinforcements.

Second British Offesive (October 1917-October 1918)

Allenby faced the formidable Ottoman line at Gaza-Beersheba, The Ottoman line was capably overseen the German commander Erich von Falkenhayn, the former army Chief of Staff who had earlier orcestrated the Verdun offensive, a pivotal battles of the War. Allenby renewed the offensive into Palestine. Alenby fought the Third Battle of Gaza and the Battle of Beersheba at the same time (October-November 1917). The British Egyptian Expeditionary Force smashed through the Ottoman lines and finally captured Gaza. The climatic battle for Palestine was fought at Mughar Ridge and Junction Station (November 1917). Jerusalem fell (Decembr 8), two weeks before Allenby's deadline. The final battle of the campaign was fought at Megiddo, the site of a famous ancient battle (September-October 1918). Allenby's masterful handling of his forces is said to have presaged German Workd War II Blitkrieg tactics. Megiddo broke the back of Ottoman armies in the Levant.

Arab Nationalism

The British advanced to Damascus with the Arab Army on its flank. This ended Arab-Allied unity. The Arabs expected independence. The British and French wanted to control the areas liberated from Ottoman rule. Rather the Arabs lands were diviided by the British on the basis of the Sykes-Picot agreement (February 1916). They becane Keague of Nations mandates after the War. Another complication was promises made ti the Jews in Balfour Declaration (November 1917). The Arabs had been quiesent under Ottoman rule. This was not to be the case under British and French rule. The Arab Revolt helped to generate nationalistic sentiment. Probably more importnt was that the new colonialn rulers were Christians. This was not forseen in the Koran. The Holy Koran, the very words of God, foresaw Muslims ruling Christians and Jews under Shria Law. Thus not only were the Britishband French Chrisians, but they introduced the alien concept of secular law. The Koran recognizes both Christians and Jews as 'People of the Book', but were second class subjedts of the Muslim state--dhimmī. Dhimmī who were subject to taxes for the privlidge of being residence in a Muslim state. [Koran 9:29] Muslims were the rulers, a status annoited by Allah himself. Arabs saw this as the natural state of affairs and the reverse an aberation. This is why many Muslims even today object to secular government. And the very idea of a Jewish Homeland in the middle of the Arab lands was anathema to most Arabs. The Arabs were realistic to understand that the Christian powes with their might armies might gain control of Arab lands, the Jews were a different matter. Possible Jewish control was seen as an affont to the Arab nation. There are many Koranic references to Jews. While one of the People of the Book, verse after verse in the Koran depict the Jews as a despised, contemptable people. The very idea of bing rued by Jews was replusive to most Arabs. Most Westerners fail to understand why the Arabs can not tolerare ceeding just amall sliverv of land to the Jews. They fail to understand that more is involved than the land, which is not inconequentil. It is thec very idea of acceoting the idea that such a cintemptable people should control the land and challenge the Arab people. To further complicate the Arab situation for the Allies, oil was discovered in the Arab lands. This meant that good relations with the Arabs was particularly important for the British after the War.






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Created: 8:57 AM 8/13/2012
Last updated: 6:41 AM 10/13/2019