Figure 1.-- This postcard of Prince Wilhelm, the son of the Crown Prince. He and hisd father would have been kaiser. This postcard appeared in Germany during the War. The Crown Prince critized his father for not persuing the war aggrsively. Prince Wilhelm died as a result of woulds suffered during the invasion of France (1940). The fall of the Hohenzollern dynasty was one of the primary consequences of the War. |
All of the major beligerant countries were profoundly affected by World War. The impact on Germany and Russia in partulsar would define much of the 20th century. The Germans as other Europeans went to war enthusiastically in August 1914. In Germany more than in mny other beligerant countries, the "August experience" had the impact of melting down entrenched social barriers. Romantic German nationalists had dreamed of just such a emontional momment for decades. The resulting horror of the War which continued for 4 years was a sobering education in war to the German people. After all that suffering the Russian capitulation seemed to signal that victory was within grasp. The German people were shocked to the core when General Eric Ludendorf requested an armistace (October 4, 1918) . Rationing had reached very severe levels, but the collapse of the Western Front surprised most Germans. Defeat changed the German outlook on life. One historian maintains that the Grmans and other defeated nations tend to view history as less the inevitable movement of progress and events less capable of human mastery than victoriou nations. The Germans, like other defeated nations, conceived the notion that they had won in spirit. Many Germans believed that their soldiers and technology was superior, but had only been overwealmed by crude force--superior numbers of men and greater resources. The Germans like the French after the Franco-Prussian War studied the reasons for military defeat. The shock of defeat came rise to widely held belifes that defeat had come as a result of a "failure of nerve". Even more widely believed was that Germany had been "stabbed in the back" by weak leaders, intelectuals, Socialists, and Jews. This belief in particular was exploited and promoted by the NAZIs in their rise to power. A major principle of the post-war peace treaties was national self-determination. As implemented this left Austria separated from other Germans, Germans expelled from Alscace Loraine, and large numbers of Germans within foreign boundaries (primarily Czecheslovakia and Poland). Defeat in World War I commbined with the inflation of the 1920s and Depression of the 1930s radicalized German politics, paving the way for the NAZIs to seize power. The "August experience" was born again with the "spirit of 1933". German writers describe the elation of the German people with NAZI torch light parades and goose-stepping soldiers.
All of the major beligerant countries were profoundly affected by World War. The impact on Germany and Russia in particular would define much of the 20th century.
The Germans as other Europeans went to war enthusiastically in August 1914. In Germany more than in mny other beligerant countries, the "August experience" had the impact of melting down entrenched social barriers. Romantic German nationalists had dreamed of just such a emontional momment for decades.
The Kaiser's role in the cataclism of World War I has been the subject of considerable historical study. His role has often overstated, but modern scholarship has revealed that he did play a central role. The Kaiser, unlike Hitler a generatiion later, did not want a war. "Saber rattling" is one thing, a war with the other major European powers is something very different indeed! He cannot be blamed by himself for the war.
The resulting horror of the War which continued for 4 years was a sobering education in war to the German people. After all that suffering the Russian capitulation seemed to signal that victory was within grasp. Then the German Western offensive failed and the Anglo-American offensive broke through the Hindemnburg Line. The German people were shocked to the core when General Eric Ludendorf on October 4, 1918 requested an armistace. The Allies refused to treat with the German military. Rationing had reached very severe levels, but the collapse of the Western Front surprised and shocked most Germans.
Riots broke out in German cities. Even the Kaiser's beloved Kriegsmarina when ordered out into a suisidal controntration with the British fleet mutinied. He was finally forced on October 8, 1918, to "offer peace to the enemy". He then authorized the formation of a constitutional ministry. He left Berlin on October 30 when the population became threatening, seeking refuge with the Army. The German Revolution proclaimed a Republic (November 9). The Army hard pressed on the Western Front and unsure of the rank and file was unable to effectively oppose the Revolution. This meant the end of the German Empire which had been established by the Kaiser's grandfather and Bismarck.
Field Marshal Hindenburg informed the Kaiser that the German Army could no longer protect him. The Kaiser abdicated and fled to the Netherlands (November 10). The Dutch Government which had remained neutral in the War granted the Kaiser political asylum. The Allies wanted to try the Kaiser as a war criminal, but the Dutch refused to hand him over. The fall of the Hohenzollerns in Germany and the Hapsburgs in Austria was one of the major political consequences of the War. These two families had been at the heart of German and European political events for centuries. Their sudden disapparance introduced an element of insability into German and European politics. The Kaiser moved into a palace at Dorm. He hoped that he would eventually be recalled to restablish stability in Germany. Even never trusted the NAZIs although family members became Party supporters in the hope that the NAZIs would restablish the monarchy. The Kaiser never returned to Germany even after the NAZIs invaded and occupied the Netherlands.
Officials of the new German Republic signed the Armistace in a railroad car at Compiègne, in France (November 11). It was the eleveth day of the eleventh month at the eleventh hour. The Armistace ended the fighting. The Armistace and the Versailles Treaty that followed it became so hated in Germany that Hitler insisted that the same railroad car be found to be used for the Armistace sought by the French during World War II (June 1940).
The Versailles Peace Treaty ending World War I was signed on June 28, 1919, about 7 months after the Armistice stopping the fighting on November 11, 1918. It was one of the mos important treaties of the 20th century. It had a huge impact on the international status of Germany, impacting the country territorially, militarily, and economically. Germany was made a pariah country and largely blamed for the start of the War. Of major significance, the Germany being published was the Germany of the Weimar Republic and not Imperial Germany as the Kaiser had abdicated. As a result, the domestic German opposition to the changes, including the territorial changes, came to be directed at the Weimar Republic and not the Imperial Government that had conducted the War. The NAZIs and other right-wing groups were to saddle democratic politicians with the "shame of Versailles". Germany under the terms of the Treaty suffered many consequences. The navy and merchant marine was lost. The battleships had to be turned over the the Allies. The battleships ships in fact steamed into the British naval base at Scappa Flow. The German captains, however, rather than turning them over to the British, scuttled them. Germany lost her African and Pacific colonies. Along with territorial losses in Europe were important natural resources. The German Army was reduced to virtual impotence. And the country was saddled with immense retributions. A critical element in the treaty was the principle of national self determination promoted by President Wilson. This resulted in the creation of a large number of small, weak states in Eastern Europe.
A major principle of the post-war peace treaties was national self-determination. As implemented this left Austria separated from other Germans, Germans expelled from Alscace Loraine, and large numbers of Germans within foreign boundaries (primarily Czecheslovakia and Poland). It must be said that the the Versailles Treaty was not as onerous as the Treaty of Breast-Litovsk (1918) imposed on the Russians. Still it was undeniably harsh. Many historians see it at the first step toward World War II.
Defeat changed the German outlook on life. One historian maintains that the Germans and other defeated nations tend to view history as less the inevitable movement of progress and events less capable of human mastery than victorious nations. The Germans, like other defeated nations, conceived the notion that they had won in spirit. Many Germans believed that their soldiers and technology was superior, but had only been overwealmed by crude force--superior numbers of men and greater resources. After the War right-wing politicans pushed the myth of the "November Crininals". These were the politicans that signed the Armistace. This was popular notion among right-wing politicans, veteran groups, anf the Prussian junker who could thus claim that the German military was not defeated.
America was embraced by German writers and officials. American books, jazz, and movies were popular, until supressed by the NAZIs. The concept of mass consumerism was also embrased. The German response to Henry Ford's Model T was the Volkswagen. [Schivelbusch]
The Germans like the French after the Franco-Prussian War studied the reasons for military defeat. The British had introduced the tank in World War I with considerle success. It was the Germans after the War that developed the most efficent tank forces and the tactics to effectively use them on the modern battlefield. Defeat was also a factor in Germany's embrace of innovative weaponry such as an expanded use of airpower and tactics such as Blitzkrieg. The shock of defeat came rise to widely held belifes that defeat had come as a result of a "failure of nerve". Even more widely believed was that Germany had been "stabbed in the back" by weak leaders, intelectuals, Socialists, and Jews. This belief in particular was exploited and promoted by the NAZIs in their rise to power.
Defeat in World War I commbined with the inflation of the 1920s and Depression of the 1930s radicalized German politics. Both the Communists and rightwing parties like the NAZIs grew in power. Both were determined to seize power and destroy the Weimar Republic. The Communists refusal to make common cause with the Social Democrats paved the way for the NAZIs to seize power.
The National Socialist German Worker's Party (NAZIs) became the most powerful of all Fascist parties. It was not founded by Hitler, but became dominated by him at an early point. He fashioned it an instrument for a personal totalitarian dictatorship. Hitler clearly stated the NAZU political goals in Mein Kampf. For political reasons he particularly stressed the most popular issues such as the Versailles Treaty and fear of Communismin his political campaigns. Mussolini and his Fascists seized power in Italy a decade before the NAZIs seized power ans stronly influenced Hitler. After the NAZIs seized power they soon elclipsed Mussolini's Fascists.
NAZI and Communist inspired political violece disrupted the Weimar Republic. The Weimar Government was at first dominated by the Social Democrats, a sociaslist party. From the very beginning the Weimar Government coul not fully depend on the loyalty of the Army. This changed with the selection of Hindenburg (1925). Even so, Hindenburg while the president of the Weimar Republic, was like much of the monarchy at heart a monarchist. The foundation of the Weimar Republic was gradually eroded wth first uncontrolled inflabtion and then the Depression. This resulted in the growth of the extremist pates, the Communists and NAZIs. Gradually a majority of the Reichstag was composed of parties dedicated to the destruction of constitutional democratic government.
President Hidenburg appointed Hitler chancellor (1933) which provided him the opportunity to seize power. The "August experience" was born again with the "spirit of 1933". German writers describe the elation of the German people with NAZI torch light parades and goose-stepping soldiers. One German author writes, "Without the past war, such a purely military phenomenon could not have been possible." [Suuhrkamp] The preceived humiliation of the Versailles Treaty and the impage of defeat fired a desire for national regeneration and revenge through violence. [Schivelbusch] Here this desire seems to have been most hearfelt by young Germans. Many older Germans that had experienced the War had no desire to relieve it. Hitler in 1938 was apauled by what he saw as a lack of national enthusism for war.
Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. The Culture of Defeat: On National Trauma, Mourning, and Recovery (Metropolitan, 2003), 404p.
Suuhrkamp
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