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The inter-ware era was a time of disarmament in most countries. Military budgets were pared back in Britain, france, and America. This was not the case in Japan. After Hitler seized power in 1933, he ordered a major rearamanent program in violation of the Versailles Peace Treaty. The democracies did not respond. The public after World War I was apauled by war and desired to avoid another war. As a result, militry expenditures were not poltically popular. The democracies by the 1930s were more concerned with domestic issues--especially efforts to fight the depression. The German rearament program, especially the Luftwaffe, had by 1938 had given NAZI Germany a significant militay advantage in Europe. The same was occuring in the Pacific with the Japanese. There were warnings about German rearmament. Churchill in particular spoke out on the subject. Hitler demonstrated the force of the Luftwaffe in Spain beginning in 1936. Hitler beginning in 1938 began to use his military advantage. He seized Austria in the Anschluss (March 1938) and then turned toward Czecheslovakia. The Munich Conference (October 1938) was a shock to the democracies. The character of the enemy they faced was made manifest in Kristallnacht. The shocked democracies began a rearmament program. This included America, although there was still considerable public opposition to arms spending in the United States. Germany's seizure of the rest of Czecheslovakia (March 1939) in violation of the Munich Agreeement made in obvious as hurchill had warned that appeasement would not work.
Hitler and the NAZIs planned from the beginning a massive rearmament program. NAZI propaganda promoted the idea that Germany must rearm. [Riegler] The NAZIs did not, however, begin a massive rearmament program immediately upon seizing power in 1933. The Weimar Republic Goverment itself has spomsored secret armanents programs in violation of the Versailles Treaty. The NAZIs did sharply expand weapon reseearch. The German military expanded in secret during 1933-34. Hitler by March 1935, felt suffucently secure to publicize his military. The NAZIs announced that they expansion - which broke the terms of the Versailles Treaty. Europe learned that the Nazis had a modern 2,500 plane Luftwaffe and a Wehrmacht with 300,000 men. Hitler publicly announced that he was insituting a compulsory military conscription and planned to expand the Wehrmacht to 550,000 men. Actual araments production began in earnest in 1936. The NAZIs in 1936 doubled armamets spending over 1935 levels. It was in 1936 that NAZI arms spending first exceeeded the combined total for transportation and construction spending. The nature of arms spending also increased. NAZI arms spending initially focused on research, development, and capital investment. The NAZIs in 1936 began concentrating on producing actual military equipment. This is one of the least economically beneficial types of government spending.
The U.S. Army that was to liberate Western Europe and play an important role in defeating NAZI Germany did not exist in the 1930s. What existed was a very small professional core. The War Department after the Armistice on the Western Front (November 1918) recomended that Congress authorize a permanent Regular Army of about 0.5 million men and a 3-month universal training system that would create a ready reserve thatv had basic military skills. This would give the United States the capability of rapidly creating a major force to provide for future defense needs. Congress accurately reflecting American public opinion firmly rejected these proposals. Americans thought they had won the "War to End All wars". With Imperial Germany defeated, few Americans saw the need for a large army or major military expenditures. There was a willingness to approve some naval spending, because the Navy was seem as America's shield. Most Americans thought that was all that was necessary. This became the conerstone of American defense thinking theoughout the 1920s and 30s. The world situation, however, changed dramatically in the 1930s. The United States found itself in an increasingly dangerous world. It was a world world in which Stalin was building a vast Red Army and the Japanese were building the Imperial Army which would undertake the conquest of China. Mussolini was building an army of 6 million bayonets. The tipping point was in 1935 when Hitler announced the introduction of conscription. This mean that the totalitarian powers possessed the overwealming balance of power in the world. In Europe the democracies placed their hope on the French Army, the force tht had stopped the Germans in World War I. The United States throuhout the 1930s even after Hitler reintoduced conscription, made nol effort to significantly expand its army. There was efforts to expand the U.S. Navy and later in the decade the air force. The Army remained, however, a small professional force. Even small countries in Europe had a larger army. Neither were there major efforts to upgrade weaponry.
Louis A. Johnson is the unsung hero of the American industrial miracle that played such a central role in World War II. He was in fact the architect of American industrial mobilization. He was born in Roanoke, Virginia (1891). Ge was awarded a law degree from the University of Virginia. He then practiced law in Clarksburg, West Virginia. The law firm he founded (Steptoe and Johnson) became one of the most important in Washington, D.C. He was elected to the West Virginia legislature where he rose to leadership positions. He served in France during World War I.
After the war practiced law and helped found the American Legion. President Roosevelt appointed him assistant secretary of war (1937). There he strongly advocated military preparation. He was a tireless spokesman for universal military training, rearmament, and expansion of military aviation. There was at first considerable Congressional opposition to military spending, especially from Republicans. Roosevelt often used Johnson as a foil. Johnson would make propoals. If there was strong opposition, he would disavow Johnson. One of Johnson's most important efforts was the fight to build a substantial B-17 force. He layed the groundwork for the massive expansion of armaments following Pear Harbor. Without the foundation Johnson laid, it would have taken American industry much longer to gear up for war production. One very useful tactic when money was still short was to let out small contracts. This mean that when really large apporriations came later that quite a number of companoes had the skills and trchniques needed for arms production. He had hoped to be appointed Secretary of War, but President Roosevelt seeing the need to gain Republican support for military spending, appoint Republican stalwart Henry Stimson Secretary of War (1940). Johnson was hearbroken, but always remained loyal to the President. Stimson cut back on Johnson's B-17 project. Johnson was given several projects by Roosevelt during the War, the most important a nission to Ibdia (1942). Ironically, Johnson finally obtained the prize he wanted. President Truman appointed him Secretary of Defense (1949). (The War and Navy Departments had been combined after the War.) Ironically, Truman assigned him the ask of cutting back on military spending. [McFarland and Roll]
Not only did President Roosevelt have to take on the isolationists, but he had to rearm America. Here he faced less resistance as even many isolationists favored strenthening America's defenses. One area that the President was especially concerned with was air power. The President on September 28, 1938 called a meeting in which he stressed a need to build a powerful air force. He wanted American aircrafts plants expanded so that thy could produce 20,000 planes a year. The next day he told Hap rnold that he would be the new chief of the army air Corps. Arnold would play a major role in World War II, especially the ir campaign over Northern Europe. Initially he was concerned over the President's desire to use much of the initial output to supply the Allies rather than equip American units. This reflected the major difference of opinion with the isolationists. [Freidel, pp. 308-309.] The President presented his aircraft plans to the military chiefs in greater detail on November 14, 1938. Many of the generals, including Marshall, shared Arnold's concerns about divering production to the Allies. [Freidel. p. 310.]
Building the Arsenal of Democracy in many ways began at Munich. Hitler first used his Luftwaffe to aid Franco in the Spanish Civil War. The Luftwaffe and the huge advantage it held over Britain and France was the reason that Hitler
could cow the Allies. After Munich, American leaders pledged that they would never allow another Munich to occur. Ambassador Bullitt distilled the lesson of
Munich to President Roosevelt, "If you have enough airplanes you don't have to go to Berchtgaden." [Freidel Rendezuous, p. 303.] President Roosevelt was
determined that America would never be in that position. The European air campaign despite the early prominance of the Luftwaffe would be dominated by the U.S.
Army Air Corps. This was possible because of the steps toward rearmament sponsored by the Roosevelt Administration as well as orders from the Allies following
Munich. This was to be the beginning of a massive expansion of the American aircraft industry which would evenbtually devestate Germany. The initial orders were modest, in part because of the still limited capacity of American aircraft companies.
Kristallnacht or the "Night of Broken Glass" was a vicious NAZI pogrom directed at NAZI Jews. A Polish-born Jewish Jew, Sendel Grynszpan, wrote to his soon
describing how he had been expelled to Poland and mistreated. His son Herschel was a 17-yearold boy studying in Paris. Disdraught by his parents' treatment, he
shot the Third Secretary of the German Embassy, Ernst vom Rath. As a reprisal, Hitler personally approved a massive assault on Germany's Jews in their homes and
attacks on Jewish stnagoges. The attacks began eary on November 10. Members of the Gestapo and other NAZI organizations such as the SA and the Labor Front
were told to repprt to the local NAZI Party office and were given their instructions. They then moved out ramsacking Jewish shops and synagoges and setting firm to
them. Groups of NAZIs broke into Jewish homes, looting them and destroying property that they did not want. Pets were killed. About 100 Jews were killed.
About 20,000 mostly men were dragged off to the Buchenwald, Dachu, and Sachsenhausen concentration camps. The orgy of violence exceed even what the
NAZIs had palnned. This was of copncern because the NAZIs hoped to eventually seize the property. The Jews were thus required to repair the danage to their
shops and homes. When the NAZIs realized that Jewish property was insured, Goering issued a decree requiring that insurance payments made to the German Government. An additional 1 billion mark fine was imposed on Germany Jewish community. Kristallnacht coming after Munich confirmed to many Amerivans the dangers of war and t5he nature of the NAZIs, although the full appreciation of their evil was not yet apparnts. It was enough to convince many Americans that increased military spending was needed.
President Roosevelt wanted to send war material to assist the Allies. The American military wanted the limited armaments production for its own expansion program. The President in August 1939 agreed to provide 3/8s of American military production to Britain against objection from the War Department. This was possible because the War had ot yet broken out and the embargo provision of the Neutrality Acts had not yet been triggered. The President avoided the militsry opposition by Assigning Sectrtary of the Treasury Morgenthau to deal with the Allied (British and French) purchasing missions, irritating the War Department. [Freidel, p.326.] This allocation was not made public at the time.
The Germans more than any other military, correctly assessed the lessons of World War II. The War in Europe began on September 1, 1939 when the German
blitzkrieg smashed Poland in only a few weeks. The invasion was made possible the preceeding week when Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Hitler. The
Panzers crossed the Polish frontier on September 1 along with a devestating strike by the Luftwaffe. The Polish Army and Air Force was shattered. Britain and
France declared war September 3. Within 6 days Cracow, the center of Polish nationhood, fell. Pincer movements began on September 9 to encirle the major
remaining Polish forces. Once certain of Polish defeat, Stalin ordered the Red Army to attack from the East. German and Russian forces met at Brest-Litovsk on
September 18. Warsaw fell a few days later after a ruthless bombing assault. The Blitzkrieg tactics that were to prove so devestaing in the West during 1940 were
all on display in 1939. Neither the British or French showed much attention, abscribing Polish defeat to military incompetance. The French had promissed the Poles
an offensive in the West. It never came. [Fest, pp. 602-603.] Poland's fate was sealed on September 17, when the Soviets invaded Poland from the east.
Fest
Freidel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: Rendezuous with Destiny (Little Brown: Boston, 1990), 710p.
Gilbert, Matin.
McFarland, Keith D. and David L. Roll. Louis Johnson and the Arming of America: The Roosevelt and Truman Years (Indiana University Press: Bloomington, 2005), 456p.
Schama, Simon. A History of Britain.
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