Figure 1.--We are not sure where this photograph was taken, but it may be Poland or the Soviet Union about 1942 or 43. The model of trucks may help date it. We note many images of Wehrmacht soldiers with children. We are not entirely sure how to interpret these images. NAZI policies of exploiting occupied areas created food shortages and thus the children were drawn to soldiers with food. While the NAZI plans for the occupied East was genocidal in nature, images like this suggest that this was not the attitude of the average Wehrmact soldier. Perhaps readers might have insights here.

Our approach to World War II is both a chronological and topical survey. Approached this way the individual country experiences often are obscured. Thus we have created a series of national pages designed to focus on the experience of each country in the War. Some counties were central to the War. Others played more marginal roles, but the national experience of the War was still profound in those countries. Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union were the key players in launching the War and making it a struggle of unbeliebale cruelty and leathality. Poland was the first country to stand up to the NAZIs and paid a terrible proce. Britain and France were reluctantly dragged into the War. While France fell in the first year of the War, dogged British resistance made victory possible. America in the end rescued Europe not only from Fascism, but after the War from Communism as well. Almost all of the independent countries of the world were involved in the War and even those who were not beligerants (Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey) were affected by it or played not inconsequential roles.

Malaya

Britain in the late 19th and early 20th century established contol over Malaya through a variety of treaties. Agricultural input was of minor importance in the 19th century. Planters experimented with different crops. Then in the early 20th century rubber cultivation began to take off. Along with rubber plants, the British brought Indian workers to man the new plantations. This occurred just as the development of the automobile created a vast demand for rubber. Malay which had been an economic backwater rapidly became one of the most valuable British colonies. One part of the Japanese offensive following Pearl Harbor was the invasion of Malaya. The Japanese 25th army commanded by Lieutenant-General Tomoyuki Yamashita launched the invasion of Malaya (December 8, 1941). Yamashita's 25th Army was smaller than the defending British force. Yamashita commanded only 30,000 men, but he had a well thoughout campaign, an adequate air cover, and naval support. Yamashita landed a small force in the nort. English commander General Arthur Percival when of the landings was advised to set up a defensive line and famously is sad to have worried about the effect on morale. A staff office is said to have replied, "It would be bad for morale when the Japanese start running all over the island." Yamahita moved down the Peninsula in a stunning 8-week campaign. Sinapore had substantial defenses. There were 15-inch gun implacements and a 88,000 man garrison. It was called the "Gibraltar of the East". The garrison, however, was undersupplied. The shore guns had anti-ship ammunition and could not be turned back on jungle roads that the Japanese were using to approach from the land. The RAF had 158 aircraft, but many were obsolete types, including biplanes and the retreating units could not hold major airfields Yamashita after taking most of the Malay Peninsula commenced the assault on Singapore (February 2). Lieutenant General Arthur Percival surrendered Singapore (February 15). This was the greatest defeat ever suffered by the British Army. Percival surrendered 130,000 Allied troops. Churchill was staggered. The Japanese held Singapore and Malaya for the duration of the War. Conquest of Malaya not only gave the Japanese tin mines, but the great bulk of the world's rubber resource. Tin was important, but the Allies had altermative resources. There was no real alternative to Malaya as a source of natural rubber. The Allied could not have fought World War II unlss a new source of rubber was found.

Malta

Malta was the cornerstone of the British campaign in the Western Desert. British possession of Malta and the invaluable naval and air bases there played a major role in interdicting Italian and Germany supply convoys to Libya. And it was supply shortages that played a key role in defeating Rommel and the Afrika Korps. Malta became the most bombed place on earth. German and Italian air forced relentlessly pounded the island. The island somehow managed to with tand the fiercest air assault of the War. The Italians began bombing Malta in 1940. The Luftwaffe joined in the campaign (January 1941) even before Rommel arrived in North Africa. Malta by March 1942 was enduring an average of 10 air raid alerts daily and there had been 117 straight days of bombing. The bombing was devestating. It also prevented supplies, food, and fuel from reaching the island. At one point Malta was near to capitulation, left virtual no fuel, food, or fighters. It was a convoy with an American carrier that finally succeeded in getting needed supplies through. Civilians suffered teribly. They had to move underground. Newsreels in Britain and America showed school children moving rapidly into undergrond bunkers when the air raids sireens sounded. The population was near starvation at one point. The Axis did not, however, launch a parachute assault on the island. They had the capability as shown in Crete. Senior Axis commanders advised just sych an action. After the German terrible losses suffed by the German parachute units on Crete, however, Hitler demured, After the War, historians have taken to summrizing the assul on Cretr as "the wrong island". The Axis seige was not fully lifted until July 1943 after the Axis surrender in Tunis and the invasion of Sicily. [Holland] Operaions from Malta also played an important role in interducting Axis supply lines to Tunis, fforcing the surrender there. Some orphaned children were sent to Australia.

Martinique

Martinique was one of the two principal French Caribbean possessions. The other was Guadelupe. After the fall of France, Martinique authorities remained loyal to Marshall Petain's Vichy government. Elements of the French fleet, including an aircraft carrier, were interned at Marinique. The situation on the island, however, as volitile. Unlike France itself, support for Vichy seems limited on Martinque. Vichy was neutral in the War, but in many ways cooperated with the NAZIs. This was of considerable concern tamong American authorities over Martinique because of the security of the Panama Canal, vital in American defense strategy. French French support grew on the island. At for a time an insurection was possible. The United States prepared to intervene. The United States organized a joint Army-Marine Corps task force on Puerto Rico (the 295th Infantry and the 78th Engineer Battalion). American intervention proved unecessary when Martinique authorities decided to recognize the French Committee of National Liberation.

Morocco

France in the early 20th century expanded its position in Morocco. Morocco was the scene of provocative incidents with Germany. Morocco became a French protectorate under the terms of the Treaty of Fez (1912). Moroccan units fought for France on the Western Front during World War I. Oposition to French colonial rule existed and serious figting occurred during the 1920s. French military force, however, firmly secured the Protectorate during the inter-war era. After the World War II began, the fall of France (June 1940) shocked many nationalists who thought French military power was invincible. The situation did not immetiately change because under the Franco-German Armistice the Vichy regime retained control of France's colonial dependencies. This essentially created an associated with the Germans and thus Moroccan natioinalists viewed the Germans differently than other Arab nationlists. French Moroccan authorities were loyal to Vichy. They instituted actions against Jews based n Vichy racial laws. The Allied Torch landings changed the situation radically. American forces rapidly occupied Morocco (November 1942). Morocco was used as a supply base for the Allied forces driving east toward Tunisia. The actual fighting thus took place to the east. The Allies held one of the most important conferences of the War at Casablanca (January 1943). Roosevelt, Churchill, and DeGualle attended, but Stalin declined. It was at Casablanca that the call for "unconditional surrender" was issued and the decession to launch an expanded strategic bombing campaign was made. President Roosevelt gave personal assurances to the Sultan (future King Mohammed V), that the United States swould support independence. The French in Morocco went over to the Free French and Allied side. The Allies promised Morocco independence within 10 years if they cooperated with the war effort. Nationalist groups later based their campaign for independence on such Allied pronouncements as the Atlantic Charter. The Istiqlal (Independence) Party issued a manifesto demanding independemce (1944). France after the War, however, did not honor the pledge.

(The) Netherlands

The Dutch were neutral during World War I. There was considerable sympathy in the Netherlands for the Germans during World I. The Dutch offered asylum to the Kaiser at the end of the War and refused to turn him over to the allies for trial. After the war, the Dutch supported charities offering relief to children in both Germany and Austria. The Dutch hoped to remain neutral in World War II, but were invaded by the NAZIs as part of their Western offensive. The Dutch Air Force was destroyed and the country capitulated after the Luftwaffe terror bombing of Rotterdam. The NAZIs occupied the Netherlands for 4 years. They succeeded in killing most Dutch Jews. The Resistance had little possibility of armed oposition, but assisted the allies with relaying intelligence and assisting down airmen. After D-Day, the Allies reached the Dutch in September, but the failure of Operation Market Garden (October 1944) left most of the country still in NAZI hands until the Allies crossed the Rhine (March 1945). By this time the Dutch were near starvation.

New Zealand

New Zealand following the NAZI invasion of Poland was one of the first countries to join Britain after it declared war in Germany (September 1939). New Zealand played a role in the Battle of Britain. New Zealand like Australia also was an important part of the British forced that fought in North Africa. As a result, New Zealand and Australia found itself inmperiled after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor (December 1941). Only the remaining American fleet stood between the Imperial Fleet and Australia and New Zealand. The Japanese turned back after the Battle of the Coral Sea (April 1942). The immediate danger was not releaved until the American Navy devestated the Japanese carrier force at Midway (June 1942). American men and material poured into New Zealand in preparation for the Allied offensive in the South Pacific.

Norway

Norwegian officials were intent on maintaining the country's neutrality as they had done in World War I. Norway had no professional army and only a poorly trained militia. Officals had seen the German newsreels of what had happened in Poland and were intent on maintaining the country's neutrality. In fact they persued this course even after the NAZI invasion was underway (April 1940). Control of Norway ptoved useful to the NAZIs as naval and air bases made it difficult for the Royal Navy to bottle up the U-boats in the North Sea. Norway was also an important source of raw materials. Later after the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Germans were able to launch devestating raids on Allied convoys delivering war materials to Murmansk and Archangel. The NAZIs much admired Norway as a rich source of Nordic Aryan breeding stock. The Resistance was active in Norway. The resistance aided by the British staged some important raids and kept the Allies informed of German military movements. They also saved about half of Norway's small Jewish population from the Holocaust. The Germans maintained a substantial army of occupation. Later in the War, the Allies tried to convince the Germans that they were planning an invasion, to discouraging the Germans from drawing down the occupation force to strengthen the Atlantic wall in northern France.

Palestine

Plaestine was part of Ottman Empire for several centuries. The province has a largely Arab population. Zionism was founded in Europe during the 19th century and promoted emmigration to Palestine with the purpose of founding a Jewish homeland. The Ottomons permited small-scale Jewish emmigration. THe Ottomans joined the Cetral Powers in World War I seeking to regain lost territory in the Balkans. As part of the operations of the Arab Army and Col T.H. Lawrence and a 1917 Britih offensive undeder Allenby, Palestine fell. After the War, the British administered Palestine under a League of Nations trusteeship. The rise of Fascism in Europe encouraged many Jews to seek refugee and strengthened the Zionist movement. The British attempted to restrict Jewish immmigration. The expanding Jewish population also resulted in growing anti-Semitism among the Palestinians. This had opposition to British colonial rule caused many Palestinians to sympethize and seek support from the NAZIs.

Philippines

The Japanese invaded the Philippines days after the attack on Peal Harbor. The Philippino people suffered greviously under Japanese occupation. This helped fuel an effective Resistance campaigns carried out by guerillas which had achieved control of substantial areas. The Japanese, gowever, controlled the population centers, especially on Leyte and Luzaon. The Navy preferred targetting Formosa (Taiwan), but MacArthur eventually prevailed with his insistence that America must retun to the Philippines. He considered his vow to return a pledge to the Philippinp people that had to be honored. Some how his vow, "I shall return." sems less approaptiate than "We shall return", but it was pure MacArthur and he convinced President Roosevelt. Reports from resistance fighters and American pilots revealed that the Japanese were not heavily defending large areas of the Islands. The inasion of Mindanao was considered unecessary and the decession was made to strike first further north at Leyte. It was in this engagement that the Kamakazis first appeared, although still in relatively small numbers. MacArthur President Sergio Osmeña waded ashore with the invasion force at Leyte Gulf (October 20, 1944). The American Army forces advanced steadily. The Japanese resisted, but could not match American fire power. The most serious Japanese resistence occurred at sea. The resulting naval engaement following on Battle of the Philippones Sea is commonly referred to as the Battle of Leyte Gulf. It was the largest sea battle ever fought and resulted in the destruction of the Japanese fleet as an effective fighting force. This opened the way for the land campaign. Further landings occurred at Ormoc (December 7, 1944).

Poland

World War II began with the German invasion of Poland (1939). The Soviets of course also invaded Poland in 1939, but Britain and France wisely only declared war on Germany. The subsequent Cold War between the Soviets and the western Allies also had its origins in Poland. Stalin's repressive measures in Poland, especially the murder of Polish officers in the Katyn Forrest was revealed by the NAZIs in 1942. Soon Soviet measures against the Polish Government in exile, the creation of a rival Polish Governmrent, and the abandonment of the Polish Home Army in Warsaw (1944) were some of the major issues which began the separation of the Soviet and Western Allies even before the end of World War II. Poland was a major issue at both Yalta and Potsdam. Many critics hav charged that tht President Roosevelt in particula abandoned Poland to the Soviets. [Olson and Cloud] The simple fact is, however, that the Red Army destroyed the Whermacht. If it had not been for the relentless pressure of the Red Army in the East, D-Day would have never been possible. The Soviet domination of Poland and Eastern Europe after the War was a simple reflection of that basic fact. America and the Western Allies could not have rescued Poland from the Soviets without war. In the end it was the Polish people who would prevail. It was in Poland with Solidarity in the 1980s that the Soviet empire began to unravel.

Portugal

Dr. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar ruled Portugal as a dictator with Fascist trappings. He maintained a neutral policy, but there were strong pro-Axis support in the country. Portugal also had a histoically special relationship with Britain that even preceeded the Napoleonic Wars. Salazar's adoption of Fascist policies (political dictatorship, police state rule, bans on trade unions, strident anti-Communism, and corporatist social and economic policies) gave his regime a Fasist aura. He supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War. As a result his regime was approved as sufficebntly Fascist by Hitler and Mussolini. Portugal was of some importance to Germany in World War II. Portugal was the principal source of Wolfram ore which yielded tungsten. This was a critical material because tungsten-hardened steel alloys had many military applications in machine tools, armor plate, armor-piercing projectiles, and other uses. The Germans pioneered the use of tungsten. As a result of these and other NAZI purchases, the Salazar regime benefited from the War. Salazar insisted on payments in gold. Here accounts vary as to the extent to which the regime profited from the War. NAZI inteligence agents were active in Portugal as were British agents. Portugal's role is complex. Salazar also cooprated with the Allies, especially as the German military situation shifted. Salazar leased the British important bases in the Azores for naval campaign in the Atlantic. Of course given Anglo-American naval power, he had no real choice. He also permitted Jewish and other refugees to escape the NAZIs by both boat and air.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico was American territory and as part of the United States was involved in American defense preparations as World War II broke out. America was especially concerned with the defense if the Panama Canal, a key element in American defense planning--especialy naval operations. The Canal allowed American ships to moce from the Atlanic to the Pacific as required. It was also vital in the movement of strtegic materials. The principal American plan in event of war was Plan Orange. As part of that plan the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard were called into Federal Active Service and assigned to the Puerto Rican Department (October 1940). Military training were conducted at Camp Las Casas in Santurce. Tey were assigned to the segregated 65th Infantry Regiment. Purto Ricans assigned to the 295th and 296th regiments of the Puerto Rican National Guard were trained at Camp Tortuguero near Vega Baja. Naval authorities wanted to expand Caribbean naval facilities. Construction of a massive new naval base began--U.S. Naval Station Roosevelt Roads. The initial plans were reduced because the major naval theater became the North Atlantic. And as aesult of Americ's developing alliance with Britain, the British turned over Caribbean ports to the U.S. Navy--the "Bases for Destoyers" deal. Puerto Rican units were used both to defend the Canal and in the European theater.

Romania

Romania with its important petroleum resources was a major target of German diplomacy. Germany did not have the petroleum to wage a war of any duration. The basic calculations were stark. The Germans estimated that they needed 12 million tons of oil annually to wage war. The synthetic petroleum industry in the Ruhr based on coal liquidficatioin would by the late 1930s produce about 3 million tons, leaving a defivcit of 9 million tons. Quite simply, NAZI Germany could not go to war without a secure source of additional oil. The oil could not be imported by sea because of the Royal Navy. The answer to this shortfall was Romania. The Romanian oil fields centered around Ploesti produced about 7 million tons annually. Romania posed some initial problems because the country had sided with the Allies in World War I and as a result had been rewarded with territorial concessions at the expense of its neighbors which had sided with the Central Powers. The Romanian royal family was a German family, but Romania had sided with the Allies in World War I. Romania agreed to sell most of its oil to Germany (1939). British efforts to bid for the oil failed. The NAZIs next convinced the Romanians to expel British technicians (July 1940). General Ion Antonescu, who had been the Minister of War, for King Carol when he seized power (September 6, 1940). This meant that the NAZIs had essentially turned Romanian into a satellite state and ally. Antonescu styled himself Conducator (Leader) styled after the Führer principle in Germany. Antonescu ininiated a Fascist state and unleased the Iron Guard, Romania'sersion of the NAZI storm troopers and no less vicious. The Iron Guard proceeded to murder democratic politicians. Antonescu also began the Holocaust in Romania. The Iron Guard killed hundreds of Jews in the streets of Bucharest. The regime swiftly instituted a wide range of anti-Semitic measures. Jews were fired from government jobs and many private businesses. Jewish professors were fied and students expelled from universities. [Gilbert, p. 343.] German moved into Romania, a country which Italy also has interess in, was resented by Mussolini.

(El) Salvador

President Martinez at the beginning of the War was sympathetic to the Germans, as was the case in several other Latin American regimes. And the population, as was the case throughout South and Central America. had a largely anti-Semetic attitude. While President Marinez was openly suportive of the Germans and Italians, with Pacific coast, he was not in a position to offer any assistance to them. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt had from an early point of his administration, announced the Good Neighbor Policy (1934). An element in that policy was no interference in the internal affais of Latin American countries. This changed with the outbreak of the War. The Roosevelt administration pushed for “Pan American Solidarity”. Given that several Latin American governments, and not just El Salvador, were pro-Axis, this required the Administration to do just what it had pledged not to do. Not only was Martinez pro-Axis, but it took 3 years for the United States to recognize his government. The United States pushed Latin American governments to move against Axis agents. This was a somewhat ham-fisted efforted as the United states was asking Latin American countries to deport German nationals which in some cases included German Jewish refugees. The American pressure worked. Martinez shifted his policies and moved against Axis agents. He shut down a NAZI radio station and associated presses. Only a few days after Pearl Harbor, El Salvador declared war on the Axis countries (1941). Inprobably, El Salvador played a role in The Holocaust. A Salvadoran diplomat was responsible for saving about 30,000 Jews in NAZI-occupied Europe.

Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia in the years leading up to World War II established good relations with the European Axis powers (Italy and Germany). Axis propagand sought to exploit the anti-British and French feeling in the Arab world. NAZI anti-Semitism was another factor. The Saudis negotiated an arms agreement with NAZI Germany prior to the outbreak of the War. Abd al Aziz, the founder of the Saudi state, maintained relations with the NAZIs and neutrality through much of the War. Gradually as the War turned against the NAZIs, the Saudis began to favor the Allies. Aziz finally issued a oerfunctory declaration of war agains NAZI Germany (early 1945). This made the Saudis eligible to become one of the founding members of the United Nations. President Roosevelt met with Aziz on the way back from Yalta. Oil had been discovered in Saudi Arabia before the War. The outbreak of the war stopped oil sales because of shipping difficulties. The importance of oil in the War made Saudi Arabia a country of strageic importance. President Roosevelt declared the defense of Saudi Arabia as of vital interest to the United States (1943). This was a declaration needed to make the Kingdom eligible for Lend-Lease aid. After the War, British influence was declining and the United States begame the major force in developing the Saudi Oil industry. By the end of World War II, British power and influence in Arab affairs had begun to wane, and during the late 1940s and early 1950s the United States emerged as the dominant Western power on the Arabian Peninsula. Aziz played a role in establishing the Arab League (1945).

Senegal

Senegal was of some importance during World War II because of the deep-water port of Dakar. Dakar became the administrative center of French West Africa (1902). Senegalese soldiers fought for France on the Western Font in World War I. France used them for occupation duty in The Rhineland which many Germans found provocative. After the fall of France (June 1940), authorities in Dakar adhered to the Vichy regime. British and Free French forces attempt to take Dakar (September 27, 1940). This was DeGualle's first major attempt to rally Frenchmen to resist the NAZIs. The British despite the critical condition at home supported the effort. DeGualle commanded the 1st "Brigade de legion francaise". The British added the 101st Royal Marine Brigade. The two units sailed with a small Royal Navy flotilla including the HMS Ark Royal. DeGualle and the British expected to be welcomed by the local authorities. [Marder] They were not. The Allied cause looked very bleak at the time. Local authorities after the shock of French defeat were not anxious to join the British and Free French. A 3-day battle ensued. The Vichy authorities resisted with batteries, warships, and aircraft. The British carrier had largely obsolete, low-performance aircraft. British ships including the battleship Resolution were damaged. Finally the British and Free French were forced to withdraw. [Williams] The Allies executed the Torch landings in North Africa (November 1942). French authorities in Dakar decided to switch sides and join the Free French administration in Brazzaville. Dakar was then occuipied by the United States which extended theoughout the War. French authorities soon after Vichy authorities in Dakar switch sides convened a conference of colonial governors in Brazzaville (January 1943). The Dakar airport vecame an important trans-Atlantic ferrying point. The French colonial governors recommended major social reforms, including the abolition of forced labour and the indigenat. France after the War declared Senegal as an Overseas Territory. France granted French citizenship was granted to all inhabitants regardless of race or religion. Forced labour was abolished. France granted Senegal and other colonies representation in the French National Assembly, although only with a small number of deputees.

Sierra Leone

Sierra Leone is not a country normally associated with World War II. It was at the time Britain declared war on Germany (September 1939) part of the Empire. Thus the colony went to war with Britain. The British after the fall of France often talk of going it alone. In fact the British were never alone and over the long run the many parts of the Empire played mjor role. The contribution of Sierra Leone by itself was limited, but the combined force of the Empire was a major part of Britain's war effort. The colony did not have any critical resources. The major exports were palm oil and peanuts. The British recruited soldiers in Sierra Leone. There was no conccription, but tribal chiefs were used to encourage inlistment. There was also recritment during World War I, but in World War II recruits in Sierra Leone and other African colonies (except South Africa) had greater combat roles. Many of the men recrited in Sierra Leone fought with the British Army in Burma. There was some war-time proganda to explain what life might have been like under the NAZIs. Anti-British feeling was limited, but ITA Wallace Johnson, Editor of the African Standard regularly criticized British colonial rule and the War which he saw as both the result of colonialism and capitalism. The British finally intered him. The United States had a naval observer in Freetown. Britain after the War began to give the people of Sierra Leone more responsibility in the colony's administration. The British set up District Councils and a Protectorate Assembly (1946).

Singapore

Singapore was the keystone of Britain's military position in the Pacific. Japan took the large well supplied British garison at Singapore with surprising ease. British General Percival has been sharply criticized. The defense of Singapore was bady planned. The Japanese offensive down the Malay Peninsula was briliantly executed. The key factors were that the Japanese were able to achieve aerial and naval mastery that was never anticipated in British defense planning combined with the surprising mobility of Japanese ground forces. Pearl Harbor left the American Pacific Fleet unable to respond to the defense of the Philippines, let alone Singapore. Two of Britain's most powerful ships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sent without air cover and sunk by Japanese bombers. [Gilbert] Churchill was outraged and Percival's surender. It was Percival's seeming willingness to so quickly surrender that enraged Churchill. The British 8th Division had been rushed to Singapore after it was already too late. The fall of Singapore was a military catastrophy of emense proportions. Japanese forces within 6 months moved through Burma to the border of India in the West and New Guinea in the South. Australian trops had garisoned Singapore, after previously sending forces to North Africa, left the country virtually undefended. Only the intervention of American carriers in the Ciral sea blocked Japanese expansion further south. The Japanese conquest of Malay also presented the Allies with a critical problem. The world's rubber production was centered on the Malay Peninsula. And rubber was a vital war material. Singapore's fall would have consequences after the War. The prestige of the British Empire has been irreperably damaged.

South Africa

The Union of South Africa was created after the Boer War (1910). The Union consisted of the Cape Colony, Natal Colony, and the Boer republics of the Orange Free State, and Transvaal. The two major political parties, the South African Party and National Parties, merged to form the United Party in an attempt to untite Afrikaners and English-speaking whites (1934). The union did not last long, the two parties split only 5 years later (1939). The issue that split the United Party was joining Britain in war against the Germans. The Afrikaner dominated National Party sympathised with NAZI Germany in part because of the importance the NAZIs placed on race. Hertzog did not want to join the British in the War. He proposed that South Africa should remain neutral. Smuts wanted to support the British. Smuts won a narrow parliamentary vote. Smuts was appointed prime minister and South Africa declared war. The National Party left the United Party and continued to be pro-Germany even after the NAZIs invaded and occupied the Netherlands. South African units played an important role in early phases of the War before Britaon had fully mobilized its forces. The South Africans played a key role in the British campaign which defeated the Italians in East Africa (1941). They then proceeeded to play an important role in the Western Desert (1941-43). The South Africans also fought in the Italian campaign (1943-45). The South African forces were segregated. White troops (135,000) served in combat units. Africans and Coloreds (70,000) served in labor and transport units. South Africa was an important source of raw materials (platinum, uranium, and steel). South African ports (Durban and Cape Town) were also an import part of the Allied supply lines. This was especially important when the Axis had closed the the Mediterranean and supplies to the Desert Armybhad to flow around the Cape of Good Hope. They continued to be useful to supply Allied forces in India and Burma.

Soviet Union

The war on the Eastern Front was the most gighantic conflict in the history of warfare. In large measure, the result of the campaign determined the outcome of the War. It is difficult to see how the Western Allies could have staged the D-Day invassion to liberate France if the NAZIs had succeded in destroying the Red Army on the Easern Front. The resistance of the Soviet people to the NAZIs is one of the outstanding instances of heroism and valor in human history. It is no reflection on the character of the Soviet people that Stalin became virtually an ally of Hitler and launched a series of aggressions comparable to those of the NAZIs. Opperation Barbarossa came as a complete shock to Stalin (June 22, 1941). The Wehrmacht achieved stunning successes. In the drive toward Moscow and Leningrad, the NAZIs committed the most heinous attrocities in modern times. Hitler had made it clear from the onset that the campaign would be a war of extinction. At the gates of Moscow, the Russian Winter, interference by Hitler, and the bravery of the Red Army broke the Wehrmacht. Slowly after Moscow and Stalingrad the the weight of Allied production, the resurgent Red Army, the strastegic bombig campaign, and finally a second front with D-Day doomed the Wehrmacht.

Spain

The Spanish Civil War !936-39) is seen by many as a preview of World War II. It ended (Match 1939) months before World War II broke out in Europe. Spain maintained its neutality and never entered the War. During the first years of the War, Spain sided with the Axis and offered some support. Volunteers participated in the campsaign against the Soviet Union. Franco refused Hitler's demands to let German troops pass through Spain to seize Gibraltar. He also refused German demands to turn over Jews to the NAZI killing machine. Franco kept Spain out of World War II, although it was a close-run thing. He did consider joining Hitler, but was not offered sufficent enducements. In the end it was geographpy that kept Spain out of the War. Its peninsular situation meant it was more exposed to the Royal Navy than any other country on the Continent and thus more threatened. And Hitler's fixation on the East meant that he was not going to delay his plans with a distracting invasion in the West. It also mean that the NAZIs were forced to pay for the resources, espcially wolfram obtained from Spain. While Spain stayed out of the War, children were still affected by the ligering impact of the Civil War.

Sweden

Sweden was the only Scandinavian country and one of the few Europen countries not to be drawn into World War II. Like many countries, Sweden proclained its neutrality. Sweden remained neutral in World war I and hoped to do so again after World war II broke out in Europe. When the NAZIs invded Denmark and Norway (April 1940), it was expected that Sweden would be next. In the end no military action took place on Swedish soil, but tht does not mean that Sweden was not affected by the War and played a part in it. Sweden acceeded to German demands to use the Swedish railroad system to move men and material into Norway, but only after the Germans were securely in control of the country. When the NAZIs invaded Denmark and Norway (April 1940), it was expected that Sweden would be next. We do not know to what extent Hitler considered invading Sweden and what disuaded him from doing so. The NAZIs finally concluded that Sweden would prove more useful as a neutral country. Sweden's primary role in the War was to supply raw materials (mineral ores, especially iron ore), finished steel, and manufactured goods to NAZI Gemany. Surrounded by the NAZIs, Sweden had few options. Cut off from other trading partnes, Sweden proceeded to expand trade with the Germans and Swedish raw materials supported the Gernman war effort until late in the war.

Switzerland

Switzerland like the Netherlands was committed to neutrality. Unlike the Netherlands they were able to maintain their neutrality. Historians have asked why Switzeland suceeded. The central reason is probably that they had a creditable military force. The Swiss were prepared to fight and by withdrawing into their Alpine national redoubt could have put up a substantial resistance. The Panzers would have been lkess effective than on the flat terraine of Poland France, and Russia. There is no doubt that the NAZIs would have succeeded, but it would have been at considerable cost. There is also no doubt that if they had prevailed in the War that Switzerland would have disappeared. Switzerland has a large German population, part of which was pro-NAZI. NAZI forbarance also reflected the fact that Switzerland was useful to the NAZI war effort. Swiss raw materials and industrial production could be imported. In addition, the Swiss played a role in finanzing the German war effort. Gold looted from the occupied countries could be used in Switzerland. Swiss acquiesence to NAZI demands were understandable after the fall of France (1940), but many observers believe that it continued long after the fortunes of war changed and the danger of NAZI invasion passed. Unlike Sweden, the Swiss returned Jewish refugees who managed to reach Switzeland to the Germans. This continued even after D-Day.

Syria

After the fall of France. French authorities in Syria, recognized the authority of Vichy Government. This included a military force totling about 40,000 Legioneers and Muslim soldiers backed by 90 tanks and prepared fortifications. Admiral Darlan provided logistical support to the Germans and Italians in efforts to support the Rashid Ali revolt in Iraq. This was a clear violation of Vichy's neutrality. Syria located in the Eastern Mediterranean was of some strastegic importance. The British feared that Vichy would allow the Luftwaffe to establish air bases in the country. This would have threatened the British position in Egypt as well as provided a jumping off point to seize the oil fields in Iraq. Churchill thus ordered Wavell after putting down the Iraqii Revolt to seize Syria (June 1941). Degualle assured Wavell that the Vichy garison would come over to the Free French with little resistance. They did not. The British and Free French forces entered Syria from Palestine. There was toughh fighting, but the Allies reached Damascus (June 17).

Thailand

Thailand since a 1932 coup was controlled by a military government headed by Phibun. The Thai Government under Phibun sought to benefit from the war in Europe. After the fall of France (June 1940), fighting occurred along the eastern border with the French in Indo China. Japan moved forces into Indo China which caused the United States to institute trade embargos. Attacks by the Thais begn (September 28, 1940), but were sporadic, but the Thais launched a major offensive (January 5, 1941). The Japanese presured the French Vichy regime in France to meet Thai demands for territory. Thiland occupied a strategic lovation. Japanese drives toward the bastion in Singapore and toward India would have to move through Thailand. [Haseman] With limited resources and Japanese forces in Indo China, the French had little alternative. The French ceeded substabntial territory to Thailand (March 1941). This included Laos west of the Mekong. much of the Cambodian province of Battambang. This was territory that had been Thai before the French intervention into Southeast Asia. This apparent Thai victory made the Phibun Government very popular. After Pearl Harbor, the Japanese crossed the Thai border at Chumphon (December 8, 1941). Thai officials quickly agreed to Japanese demands to allow transit to Japanese forces moving against the British in Malaya and Burma. Phibun announced that the arrangement with the Japanese was "prearranged". Phibun proceeded to sign a mutual defense pact with Japan (December 1941). Thai participation was important to the Japanese both to promote its anti-colonial propaganda line and its own Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere. Cooperation meant that the Japanese offensive would not be slowed nt Thai resistance and the need for a large occupation force. There was some support from Thasi ntionalists. Pridi resigned from the cabinet to protest the arrangement with Japan but soon accepted the largely non-political post of regent for Ananda Mahidol who was absent. the Phibun regime was forced by the Japanese to enter the war, declaring war on both Britain and the United States (January 1942). Thai politics led to the development of a resistance movement. [Haseman] The country was divided between Phibul's military faction and a small civilian group led by Pridi. Inevitably Pridi and his supporters evolved from an opposition group to a resistance movement against Phibul and his Japanese allies. Ambassador Seni Pramoj in Washington was outraged and refused to deliver the declaration to the United States government. The United States looked on Thailand as an occupied country and refused to respond with its own declaration of war. Seni was from an aistocratic family and organized the Free Thai Movement (FTM)--a kind of government in exile. The FTM recruited Thai students in the United States to work with the U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS). The OSS trained Thais for underground work. Pridi working out of the office of the regent in Thailand ran a clandestine operation that received Allied support to arm a resistance force. The Japanese conferred further territorial awatds to the Phiburn regime, including part of the Shan states in Burma and the four northern Malay states. Japan drove moved through Thailand to seize Malay and Singapore and Burma. About 150,000 Japanese troops were actually stationed in Thailand. The Japanese used Allied POWs and local laborers to build a railroad to support its troops in Burma. The Japanese Army forced the men to working under horrible conditions with virtually no tools. The railroad was needed in part because of Japanese reverses in the Pacific naval war. Thai attitudes toward the Japanese gradually shifted as the war progressed. Commercial trade stopped because of the War. Exports to Europe and America were no longer possible. This was not replaced by trade with Japan. The Japanese Army in Thailand began requisitioning supplies. Japan began dealing with Thailand more as an occupied country than a patner in the War. As the War began to go against the Japanese, the Allied began bombing targets in Thailand, including Bangkok. The railroad built to supply the Japanese n Burma also became a major target. The popularity Phibun and his military regime had achieved by recovering territory eroded. A civilian government took power (June 1944). The Japanese Army was preparing a major operation against resistance bases in norther Thailand (August 19, 1945). The Japanese surrender, however, caused Army commanders to cancel the offensive. American representatives arrived in Bangkok. Prime Minister Khuang Abhaiwongse annulled the 1942 declaration of war (August 19). . The Regent, Pridi Banomyong, prepared a Royal Declaration of Peace that invalidated the two war declarations stating they were a violation of the Thai Constitution and not truly representative of the will of the Thai people. Resistance leader Seri Thai, paraded in Bangkok (August 20).

Tunisia

The French established a protectorate over Tunisia (1881). Although supported by the British, the action was protested by Italy which also had designs on Tunisua. The French colonial era had a modernizing influence on the country, but also also served to foment Tunisian nationalism. Nationalists founded the Young Tunisian Party (1907) which worked for Tunisian autonomy. Another group Destour ('constitution') demanded independence (1920). The Bey endorses Destour (1922), but the French make few concessions. With the rise of Mussolini in Italy, the French fortify the Libyan-Tunisian border. More assertive nationalists led by Habib Bourguiba break away from Destour and form Neo-Destour (1934). As in the other French colonies, the fall of France shocked Tunisian nationalists (June 1940). One of the reasons Italy entered the War was to gain Tunisia. Hitler refused, however, to countenance the transfer. The Franco-German Armistice recognized continued French control of its colonies. Vichy thus controlled Tunisia. The Allies invaded Morocco and Algeria as part of Operation Torch under the Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower (November 8, 1942). Landings in Tunisia were impossible because of Axis airfieds in Sardinia and Sicily. The plan was to dash east and seize the Tunisian ports, thus trapping the retreating Afrika Korps. Hitler immediately decided to resist the Allied offensive and ordered substantial forces rushed to Tunisia, even as the Soviets surround the 6th Arny at Stalingrad. German troops begun to arrive in Tunisia (November 9, 1942). This was possible because Vichy authorities in Tunisia cooperated with them. The initially small German force was heavily reinforced by air. Hitler poured planes, men, and tanks into Tunisia. Rommel's retreating Afrika Korps occupied the Mareth Line (French fortifications near Libyan-Tunisian border. Rommel attacked U.S. forces moving east through the Tunisian dorsals (February 14, 1943). It was a baptism under fire for the fledling U.S. Army. The U.S. II Corps was commanded by Maj. Gen. Lloyd R. Fredendall. Rommel planned to drive through the Kasserine Pass, then move northwest seizing an Allied supply base at Tébessa and then drive to the coast and trap the Allied units in Tunisia. Poor coordination between Von Arnem in the north and Rommel in the south weakened the Axis position and Rommel's force was inadequate to exploit his victory at Kasserine. Eisenhower gave George S. Patton, who had commanded the landings in Morocco, command of II Corps. The Americans had a great deal to learn about modern war, but after Kasserine the learning curve was steep. Hitler's decession to contest the Tunisia delayed the Allied victory, but it also meant that he deployed substantial forces that he could not supply because of overwealming Allied naval and air supperority. Thus the final surrender was very costly. With the German surrender, over 275,000 prisoners of war were taken (May 13 1943).

Turkey

The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers and fought with Germany during World war I. As a result it was one of the great European empires that were destroyed by the War. Modern Turkey emerged fter the War. Turkey remained neutral in World War II. Although often given little attention in World War II histories, this was of major importance in the outcome of the War. Germany's most significant weakness was oil. Turkey would have provided a significant threat to the Soviet Caucasian oil fields and would have provided an important ally to the Germans in their 1942 southern offensive. Turkey almost certainly could have seized the oil fields in Iraq that supplied the Royal Navy in the Mediterranean and the 8th Army in Egypt. Hitler was very interesting in drawing Turkey into the War. And as aWorld War I ally, there were links. The Germans also had a great deal to offer the Turks, especially the Pan-Turkic natiinalists. The Germans thought they had convinced to enter the War. Here we are not sure, but the disaster at Stalingrad cerainly settled the issue. Churchill also worked hard on getting Turkey to join the Allies. [Denniston] Just before Barbarossa Turkey signed a Friendship Treaty with Germany (June 18, 1941). A joint statement following the signing indicated a desire for further economic cooperation. The Germans in particular were interested in Turkish chrominum ore. The Turks promised to cooperate with the Germans to close the straits to Soviet shipping. [Documents, 12: 105 and 13: 3] In the end, however, Turkey wisely remained neutral.

United Kingdom

Britain played a key role in World war II. Unlike World war I, it was unable to prevent the German defeat of France. This irrrivocably changed the world ballance of power. Britain did manage to resist NAZI aggression, the first county to do so. Although many felt Britain could not hold out after the fall of France, the RAF managed to do just this. Under estimated at the time was the importance of the Royal Navy and the strength of the British scientific estanlishment. Hitler when he launched World war II was determined not to make the mistake of World War I and fight a two-front war. Frustrated by the British and seeing himself as the greatest military commander in history, Hitler decided to fight the two-front war he had always imposed. Incredibly within the space of just a few months, with Britain undefeated, he invaded the Soviet Union and declared war on the United States. Britain became an unsinkable air craft carrier off NAI dominated Europe, Huge quanyities of American war material and military personnel flowed into Briitain. From Briitain a strategic bombing campaign against Germany was launched (1942) and then the cross-Channel invasion which cracked open Hitler's Fortress Europe June 1944).

(The) Ukraine

Most of the Ukraine at the time of World War II was part of the Soviet Union. There was an important nationalist movement in the Ukraine and thus there needs to be some separate consideration of the Ukraine outside of our discussion of the Soviet Union. The Ukraine became one of the major prizes in the conflict between Hitler and Stalin. The famine engineered by Stalin in the Ukraine was part of his attack on Ukraian nationlism. When Hitler spoke of Lebensraum in the East, one of the principal areas he coveted was the vast agricultural lands of the Ukraine. And it was in the Ukraine that the miitary contest between the Red Army and the Wehrmacht was finally resolved.

United States

There has always been a strong isolationist streak in American political life. Americans separated by two great oceans resisted involvement in the war that broke out in Europe. NAZI and Japanese barbarities gradually and President Roosevelt's leadership gradually changed American sentiment. It was the surprise Japanese carrier attack on Pearl Harbor, however, that brought a suddenly united and outraged America into the War. The Japanese attack was a superbly executed military operation and one of the greatest blunders in world history. Neither Japan or Germany had any appreciation for the ability to wage war that American industry brought to the allied war effort. America became truly what President Roosevelt proclaimed, the Arsenal of Democracy in a miraxle of industrial production. Within a year of the Japanese attack, America was involved in offensive operations that began to change the tide of the War. America in the end rescued Europe not only from Fascism, but after the War from Communism as well. Most surprisingly of all was not only how the War changed America, but America's success in fundamentally changing the nature of German and Japanese society.

Uruguay

The first major surface engagement of World War II was improbably fought of Uruguay--the Battle of the Rio Plate (December 1939). Before war was declared, the German admiralty dispatched its pocket battleship Graf Speah to conduct commerce raiding in the vast, poorly psatrolled resches of the South atlsantic sand Indian Oceans. The German raider was enormously sucessful. A squadron of Briitish cruisers (Ajax, Achilles, and Exeter) correctly deduced that the Germans would attack merchant shipping from Argentina and Uruguay before returning to Germany. The outginned cruisers managed to damage the German battleship which almost blew Exeter out of the water. The German captain sought refuge in Montevideo, a neutral port. The Uruguayans following international law, refused to allow the Germans to improve the fighting condition of the ship. Tricked by the British to believe a formidable British force was assembling to fight him outside Uruguayan waters, the German captain to save his crew, scuttled his ship and later shot himself.

(The) Vatican

The Vatican is a religious enclave of 108 acres in the center of Rome. St. Peter's dominates the Roman landscape. The question of Pope Pious' conduct during the War is enormously controversial. The Vatican was during the Wzr surrounded by first Fascist (1940-43), NAZI (1943-44), and then Allied (1944-45) forces. The most dangerous time was the NAZI control of Rome after the Italian surrender (September 1943) until the Allied liberation (June 1944). The Pope had no army, but he had enormous influence among Catholic around the world, especially in Europe. The Pope did speak in guarded terms abot Fascist aggressions and attrocities. In one of his radio addresses he spoke against those "forgetful of moral ties and bent on replacing right by force". He never specifically condemned the NAZIs. Of course if he had done so Hitler would surely have occupied the Vatican and perhaps destroyed it as well as other Church properties, many of which were harboring Jews and other refugees. The Pope allowed Italian prelates to hide Jews, saving many. He never condemned or even exposed the Holocaust nor the assault on riests in Poland and other countries. Nor did he condemn Catholic prelates, especially in Slovakia and Crotia, who engaged in horrendous attrocities. The Pope opened church oroperies to refugees resulting from the fighting . He also did important work with POWs. Many of the criticisms of the Pope seem valid. It must be said that it is much easier to criticise the Pope after the War by individuals whi were not at the time in NAZI occupied Europe. In particular it seems somewhat unfair to criticise the Pope when the Allies themselvs did not expose or condemn the Holocaust.

Vietnam (French Indo-China)

French Indo-China featured prominently in Japan's move to war. Chjinese nationalists had received some shipments of war material through Indo-China. With the fall of France (June 1940), the Japanese demanded concessions and basing rights. French officals loyal to the new Vichy Government complied. The United States reacted, however, by emargoes on raw materials. It was these actions which caused the Japanese to decide that war with the United States was necessary. The United States had also moved the Pacific Fleet to Pearl Harbor to back up its resistance to Japanese expansionism. After Pearl Harbor, the Japanese moved forces in Indo-China west through Thailand to invade the British in Burma. One of the goals was to block military shipments to the Chinese nationalists along the Burma Road. The Japanese also moved south into Malay to attack the British bastion at Singapore. Vietnamese resistance to Japanese occupsation gradually developed, led by Ho Chi Min. Indo-China especially the Mekong Delta was an important center of rice production. Throughout Southeast area, Japanese press gaging of lsabor and seiuzure of draught adversely affected rice and other food production. Food shortages affected both Japsanese field armies and the Home Islands. The Japanese seized the Mekong rice harvest in the last year of the War. Wihout supplies from the south, an estimated 1-2 million people in cebtral and northern Indo-China starved or died from disease because of their weakened condition (1944-45). The Japanese reportedly used some of the rice for fuel. America delivered some weapons to the Vietnamese guerillas. After the Japanese surrender the French attempted to restablish their colonial authority, leading to the first Vietnam War.

Yugoslavia

The Royal Government resisted German demands, but finally joined the Axis. A student led coup over throw the Goverment. A furious Hitler orders an invasion and the terror bombing of Belgrade (April 1941). The Wehrmach rapidly moves through the country, experiencing little resistance from the Yugoslav Army. The Germans are enthusiatically greeted by the Croats. The Yugoslav and Greek campaign, however, forced Hitler to delay Barbarossa. The NAZIs annex part of Slovenia to the Reich. The Italians annex the rest of Slovenia and other areas of the country. The initial lack of resistance caused Hitler to assume that the Balkans would be a compliant area in the NAZI New Order. He was suprised later when a major resistance movement developed. Hitler set up a Croatian puppet state and grants the Croats "honorary Aryan" status. The Croatian Fascists (Ustashis) targeted Serb civilians, Jews, and Gipsies. Bosnia granted by the NAZIS to Croatia in particular becomes a killing field. Even the German occupation authorities were shocked by the savagery of Ustashi attrocities. The Ustashi is led by Dr. Ante Pavelic. Unlike the NAZIs, the Ustashi, left an extensive photographic record of their attricities. Whole villages were whiped out. The Germans also commited attrocities, often in retalitation for resistance operations. The Jasenovac concentration camp was he third largest camp in NAZI occupied Europe. Yugoslav Jews were targeted by the NAZIs as well as the Ustashi and Serbian Chetniks who often cooperated with the Germans. The German's Italian allies, however, did not cooperate with the NAZIs. Bosnian Moslems volunteered to form a SS division. The Allies at first supported the Chetniks, but after concluding that they were not attacking the Germans and in some cases cooperating with them, shifted support to Tito's Communist Partisans.

Sources

Haseman. John B. The Thai Resistance Movement During the Second World War.

Marder, Arthur. Operation Menace.

Olson, Lynne and Stanley Cloud. A Question of Honor: The Kosciuszko Squadron: Forgotten Heroes of World War II (Knopf, 2003).

Denniston , Robin. Churchill's Secret War: Diplomatic Decrypts, The Foreign Office and Turkey 1942-44 (Chancellor Press, 2000) 208p.

Williams, John. The Guns of Dakar: September 1940 (London: Heinemann, 1976), 201p.

Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945 (Washington, 1949). This is a compenium of German documents captured during the War.

Created: April 25, 2004
Last updated: 6:02 AM 2/15/2010