Figure 1.--These Jewish refugee children aboard the liner "President Harding" are waving at the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor. They are among the lucky few who made it to America in 1939. They are in route to Philadelphia. We believe that these re some of the 50 Austrian Jewish children aged from 5 to 14 years of age saved by a rescue mission organized by two Jewish Americans, Mr. and Mrs. Kraus who went to Germany to save the children. Their epic mission is beautifully told in the HBO documentary, '50 children'.

President Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) was an early opponent to Hitler, although the strong isolationist movement in America limited what he could do. He did provide, at considerable political risk, crucial help to Britain even before America entered the War. Hitler himself compiled a long list of American provocations and outright acts of war--in this case a fairly accurate statement. [Domarus, pp. 1804-08.] Amercan destroyers were fighting U-boats in the Atlantic well before war was declared. American armanents were flowing to Britain in large quantities through Lend Lease and the British were placing orders for war materials in America. One such order eventually led to the P51 Mustang. It was an American Catalina patrol boat including an Americam pilot that spotted Bismark leading to its sinking. Once America entered the War, FDR insisted on demanding unconditional surrender. He told aides in private, "This time the Germans are going to know that they were defeated," refering to the decission not to occupy Germany after World War I. [Beschloss] The insistance on unconditional surrender may have prolonged the War, although here historians disagree as to what extent it prolonged the War. [Davidson, p. 442.] Given the NAZI hold and the complicity of the Government and Wehrmacht in such enormous crimes, it may not have been a major factor in stiffening German resistance. FDR was an effective war leader, especially in mobilizing American public opinion and the economy. His absence of leadership on the Holocaust is clearly the major failure of his presidency--given the fact that the Holocaust was the great moral outrage of modern times. (Civil rights was the other notable failure, but here FDR may have been correct that his efforts have had a limited imapact and woud have jepordized achievements in other areas that were obtainable.) Henry Morgenthau, Secretary of the Treasury, was perhaps FDR's closest confident in the Cabinent and the only Jew. (He was only the second Jew to serve in the Cabinent.) He was not a practicing Jew and did not raise issues with FDR that he thought would be precived as Jewish issues. He learned of the extent of the NAZI attrocities in 1943 and was deeply moved, changing his attitude toward Judiaism and caused him to raise the issue with FDR. Morgenthau became deeply involved with assissting refugees. FDR apparently knew a great deal about what was happening by 1942. [Beschloss] Few specifics, however, are vailable. I do not know of much information available as to the extent that the Government seriously considered military options to stop the Holocaust. One report suggests that John McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, went to FDR in the Spring of 1944 and suggested bombing Auschwitz, but FDR turned him down flat without seeking any military advise on the matter. [Beschloss] I do not know where Marshall and Eisenhower stood on the issue. I am not sure why FDR took this attitude. We know by this time is health was failing. Also he was still senstive politically to the canard that Charles Lindburg and other isolationists raised that the War was a war to save Jews. He may have been afraid that raising the issue publically may have devisive and fueled anti-semitism in America. He seems to have looked on request from Jewish leaders to speak out as special pleading. [Beschloss]

President Roosevelt and the Isolationists

President Franklin Roosevelt (FDR) who wa inagurated about the same time Hitler seized power in Germany was an early opponent to Hitler, although the strong isolationist movement in America limited what he could do. He did provide, at considerable political risk, crucial help to Britain even before America entered the War. Hitler himself compiled a long list of American provocations and outright acts of war--in this case a fairly accurate statement. [Domarus, pp. 1804-08.] Amercan destroyers were fighting U-boats in the Atlantic well before war was declared. American armanents were flowing to Britain in large quantities through Lend Lease and the British were placing orders for war materials in America. One such order eventually led to the P51 Mustang. It was an American Catalina patrol boat including an Americam pilot that spotted Bismark leading to its sinking.

Immigration

The Great Depression during the 1930s caused many countries, including the United States, to limit immigration. NAZI policy at the beginning was not set out to murder millions of Jews. The NAZIs were intent on stripping Jews of all their assetts and driving them penniless out of the country. Few Jews wanted to laeve Germany when the NAZIs seized power in 1933. Gradually more Jews began attempting to leave, especially after the Nuremberg Race Laws were decreeed (September 1935). After Kristallnacht, a panic set in among the Germany community (November 1938). Jews were essentially free to leave Germany as long as theu did not take any valuables and had a visa to enter another country. The problem for German and Austrian Jews was obtaining a visa. Anti-semitism and the job shortages created by the Depression in many countries, including the United States, created severe bars to immigration. Thus obtaining visas were very difficult. Jews were thus trapped in Germany when in the months leading up to the War. One of the most tragic incidents was the liner St Louis which left Hamburg with 927 Jewish refugees in May 1939 for New York. The United States refused to allow them to enter. Cuba allowed 22 to land, but refused entry to the rest. An appeal to President Roosevelt was unanswered. Other countries also refused to accept the refuggess. Finally the St. Louis returned to Europe and the refugees were landed in Antwerp on June 17. More than 600 were accepted by Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Within months these countries overrun by the NAZIs. No one know for sure, but about 240 of these refugees are believed to have survided. Britain accepted 288 which did survive. The St. Louis reffugees were some of the last Jews to escape Germany. The NAZIs stopped allowing Jews to emmigrate. Some of the last Jews to get out of Germany were the children broughtout through the Kindertransport.

American Jews

One of the most mistifying aspect aspect of any study of the American response to the Holocaust is the infighting among Jewish groups and the failure to adopt any unified effort to save European Jews. One consistent trend, however, was the criticism of Peter Bergsen and the Begsen group which in the end conducted the only truly effective American effort by a Jewish group. The tendency of Jews to dispute issues is well rcognized in Jewish culture and folk lore. There are jokes told by Jews to the effect that any discussion by two Jewish scholars will resulkt in three opinions. This reflects a freedom of thought that is nurtured by Jewish culture. It is undoubtedly a factor in the tremendous creativity and achievements of the Jewish people. In conection with the Holocaust it proved disastrous. [Wyman]

Evian Conference (July 1938)

There was some internationl pressure to do something about the refugee crisis. The Evian Conference was called by President Roosevelt in July 1938 to address the refugee crisis. Delegates from 32 countries in the summer of 1938, met at the French resort of Evian. President Roosevelt did not send a high-level official. He sent Myron C. Taylor, a businessman and close friend. Throughout the 9-day meeting, the different country delegates to express pladitudes and sympathy for the refugees. Virtually every country, including the United States and Britain, offered excuses for not letting in more refugees. The United States maintained in quota of 27,370 refugees annually, but did not offer to increase it. Many participants did not even offer any refugees admitance. Argentina claimed that they had already accepted more refugees than all other South American countries combined. Even Australia with vast unsettled lands and which was advertising in Britain and the United States for immigrants was unwilling to take in refugees. Australia's chief delegate, Colonel White stated, "Under the circumstances. Australia cannot do more. Undue privileges cannot be given to one particular class of non-British subjects without injustice to others. It will no doubt be appreciated also that, as we have no real racial problem, we are not desirous of importing one." [Proceedings, p 20.] Brazil said that it might accept a small number of agricultural workers. (Most of the refugees were urban workers, small businessmen, and professionasls. Britain said that they would maintain their 20,000 refugee quota for Palestine. Four Central American countries (Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama) issued a joint statement indicating that they would accept no "traders or intelectuals"--anobvious reference to Jews. Several other Latin American countries (Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Peru) offered to accept refugees, but onl agrcultural labor. Only three countries offered an unlimited quota: Denmark and the Netherlands. The flood of refugess was so great into the Netherlands that the Dutch had to stop taking in refugeees in 1939. [Gilbert, p. 220.] Unfortunately the Netherlands proved to be one of the deadliest countries for Jews in the Holocaust. I am not sure about Denmark. I do know that at the time of the NAZI invasion in April 1940 that there were only a small number of Jews in Denmark, much smaller than in the Netherlands. Some have called the Conference Hitler's green light for the holocaust. [Shaw] The NAZIs were in fact pleased with the outcome. The German government released a statement indicating that how "astounding" it was that foreign countries criticized Germany for their treatment of the Jews, but none of them wanted to open the doors to them when "the opportunity offer[ed]. "Nobody wants them" claimed the German newspaper Völkischer Beobachter. Hitler lost no time in pointing out, "It is a shameful spectacle to see how the whole democratic world is oozing sympathy for the poor tormented Jewish people, but remains hard hearted and obdurate when it comes to helping them ..." [Shalom, p. 21.]

Riegner Report (August 1942)

Gerhard Riegner was a German rfugee and representative of the World Jewish Congress (WJC) in Geneva. German manufacturer Eduard Schulte had contacts in Hitler’s general headquarters and provided Riegner information that Hitler had decided to systematically murder all of Jews who came under his control. Schulte reported that it had been decided to deport Jews to camps in the East where they ere to be murdered. Schulte reported that gas was being used to murder Jews in large numbers. Riegner obtained additional information and then approached the American Consulate in Geneva. Riegner gave the deputy-consul a cable and asked him to send it to Stephen Wise, an American Jewish leader (August 8, 1942). The cable detailed Schulte's information. The cable read in part, "Received alarming report that in Fuhrer's headquarters plan discussed and under consideration according to which all Jews in countries occupied or controlled Germany numbering 34 million should after deportation and concentration in east be exterminated at one blow to resolve once and for all the Jewish question in Europe. Action reported planned for autumn; methods under discussion including prussic acid. We transmit information with all necessary reservation as exactitude cannot be confirmed. Informant stated to have close connections with highest German authorities and his reports generally speaking reliable." It is not known who provided Schulte this information. Riegner did not fully understand what was happening. Large-scale killings had begun with the invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941). Hewas unaware that the deth camps in Poland were already in full opperation (July 1942). His report, however, was the first creditable report describing that NAZI Germany had designed a plan to systematically murder European Jews. (Enigma intercepts obtained by the Bitish in 1941 had confirmed wide-scale killings following the invasion ofthe Soviet Union, but this information had to be closely held to protect the Ultra code breaking effort.) The State Department in Wshington received the cable, but decided not to forward it to Wise as he was a private individuals. Sidney Silverman, a member of the British Parliament, who received a copy of the cable did pass it on to Wise (August 28). Assistant Secretary of State, Sumner Welles summoned Wise and asked him not to disclose the information until it could be verified. Wise agreed not to release the cable to the press, but did inform cabinet secretaries, President Roosevelt, Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and Christian clergymen. The U.S. government was not convinced until several months later. Wise finally released the Riegner cable and other supporting information to the press (November 24). In assessing the Governmet's reaction to the Riegner report it should be stressed that a wide range of reports of varying creditability are received. The fact that many reports are inaccurate if not false means that just because a report is received does not mean that the Government can accept it and act on it.

War Leadership

FDR was an effective war leader, especially in mobilizing American public opinion and the economy.

Administration Knowledge of the Holocaust

FDR apparently knew a great deal about what was happening by 1942. [Beschloss] Few specifics, however, are vailable.

Eleanor attended the Day of Mourning and Prayer in New York sponsored by Jewish leaders to increase public awarness on the plight of European Jews (December 2, 1942). The next day she noticed a small article in the back pages of the New York Times. (Reports of German attrocities were widely reoorted in American newspapers, but they were normally in the back pages and usually treated as individual incidents. These reports generally did not tie these incidents tigether to explain the enormity of the killings and the organized plan.) The article that Eleanor read claimed that two-thirds of Poland's Jews had been killed. She was horrified and for the first time realized the enormity of the German actions against the Jews. [Goodwin, p.396.]

War Powers Bill (November 1942)

The resident requested a new war-poers bill from Congress (november 1942). The bill would have suspoaended laws inhibiting the "free movement" of people, information, and people into and out of the United States. The major purpose of the bill was to ease the passage of llied military, industrial, and scientific personnel. This might have enabled the President to admit more Jewish refugees. As a result, the bill had no chance in Congress. [Godwin, pp. 396-397.] The Republicans added many seats in the the Congressional election, strengthening conservative forces (November 1942). The steady stream of adverse war reports in 1942 was a factor in the Democrat's poor showing. Goebels mentioned in his dairy at his time that the American and British press was reporting on Jewish persecution. He added, "At bottom, however, I believe both the English and the Americans are happy that we are extermninating the Jewish riff raff." [Goodwin, p. 397.]

Presidential Leadership

The growing scholarship on the Holocaust has in recent years become increasingly critical of President Roosevelt's leadership on the Holocaust. Some authors, including authors that are generally sympathetic to the President have faulted his leadership on opsing the Holocaust and saving Eyropan Jews. Some believe that given the fact that the Holocaust was the great moral outrage of modern times was the major failure of President Roosevelt. (Civil rights was the other notable failure, but here FDR may have been correct that his efforts have had a limited imapact and woud have jepordized achievements in other areas that were obtainable.) The charges against the President seem to fall into three categories: 1) First, the President is charged with a failure to change U.S. imigration law and provide sanctuary to refugees. Here the tragedy of the St. Louis is often given as an example of the President's failure to act. 2) Second, the President is charged with not speaking out forcifully on the issue to condemn the NAZI attrocitites. 3) Third, the Ptrsident is criticised for not ordering the bombing of the death camps. These are all serious charges and much more complicated than tghey may initially appear. I have not fully formed my opinion on this. I certanly think that America should have done more, but that is to some extent a different question than evaluating President Roosevelt's leadership. In study this topic, one fact becomes immediately apparent. That is that many of those critcising the President with today's benefit of hindsight have a very poor understanding of the political situation at the time or the reality of the military situation, especially the Air War. For many criticising the President, the fact that the NAZIs succeeded in killing 6 million Jews is sufficent reason for condemning the President. The fact is, however, that the President's war leadership was an important factor in the Allied victory. And without that leadership the NAZIs migght well have succeeded in killing the 6 million Europeans Jews that managed to survive the War.

U.S. State Department

One of the most apauling aspects of the American response to the Holocaust was the role the State Department played. [Wyman, Murder] State officiald down played and even questioned reports like the one received by German refugee Gerhart Riegner. [Goodwin, p. 396.] The State Department was not just passive, but often obstruted rescue efforts. This is well documented and shocking. Much information came out during the Congressional hearings on the War Refugee Board. The best source of information is a Treasyry Department study. [DuBoise]

Unconditional Surrender (January 1943)

Once America entered the War, FDR insisted on demanding unconditional surrender. He announced this commitment at the Casablanca Conference. Churchill who had not been consulted was surprised and concerned, but decided to accept the pronouncement gracefully. {Goodwin, pp. 407-408.] FDR told aides in private, "This time the Germans are going to know that they were defeated," refering to the decission not to occupy Germany after World War I. [Beschloss] The insistance on unconditional surrender may have prolonged the War, although here historians disagree as to what extent it prolonged the War. [Davidson, p. 442.] Given the NAZI hold and the complicity of the Government and Wehrmacht in such enormous crimes, it may not have been a major factor in stiffening German resistance.

Secretary Morgenthau (1943)

Henry Morgenthau, Secretary of the Treasury, was perhaps FDR's closest confident in the Cabinent and the only Jew. (He was only the second Jew to serve in the Cabinent.) He was not a practicing Jew and did not raise issues with FDR that he thought would be precived as Jewish issues. He learned of the extent of the NAZI attrocities in 1943 and was deeply moved, changing his attitude toward Judiaism and caused him to raise the issue with FDR. When the President did not respond, Morganthau in 1944 delivered a report entitled "Acquiesesnce of the Government in the Muder of the Jews". It was an unprcedented step and was a major factoir in steps like the setting up of the War Refugee Board. Morgenthau became deeply involved with assissting refugees. Norganthau was also the author of a plan for a particularly hard peace, reducung Germany tonan agricultural county. Roosevelt endorsed it. Churchill was agast, but Roosevelt compeled him to accept it. Secretary Stimpson leaked the plan reasoning that American public opinion woild reject it. Goebbels reffered to it constantly to help convince the Germans to keep fighting. [Beschloss] The Plan was rejected by President Truman after FDR's death.

Military Options

I do not know of much information available as to the extent that the Government seriously considered military options to stop the Holocaust. One report suggests that John McCloy, Assistant Secretary of War, went to FDR in the Spring of 1944 and suggested bombing Auschwitz, but FDR turned him down flat without seeking any military advise on the matter. [Beschloss] I do not know where Marshall and Eisenhower stood on the issue. I am not sure why FDR took this attitude.

Peter Begsen

Peter Bergsen was born in Lituanian and raised in Jeurulselum. He came to America in mid 1940 when America was still strongly influenced by the isolationist movement. He sought to inform Americans about what was happening to the Jews in in Europe. He worked closely with Ben Hecht who was much more familair with America than Bergman. He took out fuul page advertisements that shicked many. When the Romanian Government demanded money for its Jews., Bergsen took out an advertisement, "For sale to humanity, guaranted human beings, $70 each." This was at a time when American newspapers wre burying reports of NAZI atrocities in the back pages. This differed from the approach of the American Jeewish Committee anf Bergen was sharply criticised. Bergsen alsp organized the pagent, "We shall never die". He also helped organize the Rabbais March. He helped to recruit Hollywood stars like Leonard Bernstein, Eddie Cantor, Jimmy Durante, and others. These and other steps finally forced the Congress and Predsident Roosevelt to create the War Refugee Board in January 1944. As a result, 200,000 Jews and 20,000 non-Jews were saved. [Wyman, Race]

War Refugee Board (1944)

One of the results of the Evian Conference was the establishment of the War Refugee Board. The Board proved to be, however, of only of minimal assistance to European Jews. The Board did manage to save some Romanian Jews. The Board orked directly and indirectly through pressure on the Red Cross, neutrals, clergy and underground forces. [Morse] The Board was never a powerful force. It had small staff, never exceeding 30 employees. It was never able to circumvent the State Department staffed with all to many antisemites in efforts to deal with the neutral countriess or NAZI satellites. The Board was unable even to ensure that escaped Jews would reciebe refuge in America, even if they had relatives there.

Assessment

An assment of President Roosevelt and the Holocaust is difficult. The Germans killed about 6 million Jews and probanly another 6 million non-Jews. There are no precise figures. Historians can debate the actual numbers. It is unclear how many Jews could have been saved ythrough different policies. Certainly acceptiung Jewish refugess before the War would chave save thousandscof German Jews, but here it was public opinion that blocked expanded immogration. Presidential efforts cher maybhave imperiled the effort to support the Allies. One the War began and Hitler launched the Holocaust, American options were limited, but suely some could have been saved with a more aggressive policy. That said, the War Refugee Board was a major step in assissting Jewish and other refugees. In the end, it was winning the War that saved millions of Jews who did survive. Htler killed about a third of the World's Jews, but the role FDR played in winning the War saved two-thirds of the world's Jews.

FDR's Health

We know that by 1944, FDR's health was failing. And by 1945 his bility to concentrate for any length of time wa faltering. And his focus was on 1) defeating the NAZIs and 2) securing a post-War peace which required a positive relationship with the Siviet Union. Anything that did not fall onto either of the two categories did not receive much of Roosevelt's attention. And saving Jews was not high on his list of prioities. In fact the mass killing of Jews was largely conducted in 1941-43 at aime that the United States did not hav the capacity to prevent the killing. The one group that was killed in large numbers after that was the Hungarian Jews who were fed into Auschwitz in 1944. Here America could have possibly made a difference. Churchill did take some action, but not President Roosevelt. It is questionble how America cold have intervend to have saved lkives, but the Presudent did not make an effort.

Sources

Beschloss, Michael. The Conquerors.

Davidson, Eugene. The Unmaking of Adolf Hitler (Univesity of Missouri: Columbia, 1996), 519p.

DuBois, Josiah. Acquiesence of This Government in the Murder of the Jews. Dubois, an Episopalian, was a employee of the Treasury Department and threatened to release the report to the press if Secretary Morgenthau did not take the report to President Roosevelt.

Domarus, Max. Hitler Reden und Proklamationen 1932-45 Vol. 1-2 (Neustadt a.d. Aisch: Velagsdruckerei Schmidt, 1962-63).

Gilbert, Martin. A History of the Twentieth Century Vol. 2 1933-54 (William Morrow and Company, Inc.: New York, 1998), 1050p.

Goodin, Dorris Kearns. No Ordinary Time. Franklin and Eleanor Roosebelt: The Home Front in World War II (Simon & Schuster: New York, 1994), 759p.

Morse, Arthur D. While 6 Million Died.

Proceedings of the Intergovernmental Committee, Evian, 6/15 July 1938, Verbatim Record of the Plenary Meeting of the Committee. Resolutions and Reports, London, July 1938.

Shalom, Beth. Perspective> 1:1 (1998), p 21.

Wyman, David. A Race Against Death: Peter Bergsen, America, and the Holocaust.

Wyman, David. Abandonment of the Jews (1984).

Created: January 4, 2003
Last updated: 12:42 PM 7/16/2017