Figure 1.--This unidentified Paris Jewish boy is posing in his Bar Mitsva suit in wht looks like the parlour of a well-appointed family home. The portrazit is not dated, but we would guess was taken about 1910. |
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Jews first reached France during the Roman era. There has been a ontinuing Jewish presence in France since that time. With the coming of Christianity, the Jewish community went through periods of both toleration and persecution depending on the policies of both the Church and the ruling monarch. The Crusades brought on an era of persecution and expuslions. When reviewing the many drastic actions taken against Jews in France, it is difficult to understand how Jews survived in France at all. It is unclear what became of the Jews expelled from France and how many survived expullsion. There appears to have been a break after King Charles VI's expulsion (1394). Some Jews may have survived in France by feigning conversion. But basically Jewish culture was extunguished and subsequent Jewish history in France devdlops from immigrants, both Sephardic and Ashkenazim. The secularization of the French Revolution brought an era of toleration and emancipation. Even so there was a strong anti-Semetic element within France. even into the 20th century. Jews in the 19th and 20th century played a major role in French intelectual and commercial life.
Archeological evidence shows that many mostly small kingdoms rose and fell over time in the area between the two great centers of civilization, Mesopotamia and Egypt. While these peoples are mostly of only minor importance in the great swwp of history. One of these people, however, the Hebrews have come to play a majo shrouded in the mist of pre-history. Scholars associate it with the word "Hiberu". It first appears in writing sent to Egypt from one of the small client states which the Egyptians left after withdrawing from Canaan in the 1300s BC. These client states faced wves of nomadic tribes. The Egupian word "Hiberu" meant "outsider" and originally was probably used to describe migrants in general and not one specific
people. The early Hebrews apparently were semi-nomadic heardsmen who gradually began some limited farming They did not have metal tools or a written language. Like other nomads, the ancient Hebrews lived in tents and were organized in extended families combined into kinship groups. [Smitha] Biblical scholarship has developed extensive information on the Hebrew people who for a tome were captives in both Egypt and Babylonia.
Until the Babylonian Captivity, Jews lived almost entirely within Palestine or neighboring Egypt (597-538 BC). Babylon was conquered by Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great who allowed the Jews to return to Palestine. It also made possible the movement of Jew within the huge Persian Empire. The Jews were ruled by the Persians until Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire. Jews were futher scattered which the Roman supression of the Jewish Revolt (70 AD). Roman control of Western Europe allowed Jews to move freely into countries like France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, and Spain.
Tghe first Jews are believed to have reached what is modern France after Ceaser's conquest of Gaul (58-51 BC). At this time they were only small numbers of individuals. There is no known Jewish community from this period. Rome supressed the Jewish Revolt (70 AD) with great cruelty. Many Jews were killed or enslaved. The Romans landed boatloads of Jewish captives in Bordeaux, Arles and Lyons. These Jews were the beginning of Jewish communities in France. Archeologists have found Jewish artifacts in France confirming the presence of Jewish communities beginning in the 1st cebntury AD. Very little is known about these communities.
Historians have found evidence of several Jewish communities in early medieval France. These communities include Vannes (Brittany) (465 AD), Valence (524), and Orleans (533). Jewish immigration to France appears to have increased during the tumuktous era following the Fall of Rome (5th century AD). We are not sure just what forces were at play here. Vhristian clerics attempted to convert them to Christianity. A prosperous Jewish community is known to have existed in Paris (6th century). Parisian Jews built a synagogue on Ile de la Cite, this was the island in the Seine around which the city of Paris grew. This is the first known synagogue in France. It was destroyed and replaced with a church.
The vicious anti-Semitism that developed later was unknown during the early medieval era. Jews were actively involved in many areas of the economy (8th century). They were not only active in commercial areas, but were respected as physcians. The Carolingian emperors exhibited no anti-Semetic tendencies and even allowed Jews to sell goods to the imperial court. Jews were involved in agriculture. They played a major role in the wine industry, even supplying wine to be used in the churches.
The Crusades were a turning point for Jews in France and the rest of Western Europ. Pope Urban II helped chanell rising religious fervor toward the liberation of the Holyland from Muslim control. While the effort was aimed at Muslims, the emotions involved stirred pasions against the Jews. Pope Urban's
crusade, the First Crusade, was launched in 1095. Pograms of Jews in the Rhineland exterminated whole communities. The Second Crusade (1147-49) brought more persecution whith clerics often stiring pashions against Jews.
Early anti-Semtism in France took many forms. It was at first persued by the Church rather than civil authorities. Clerics often preached vivious sermons attacking Jews, focusing on the roles Jews played in the death of Christ. A variety of restrictions and penalties were imposed upon Jews. Taxes were imposed on Jews which often had to be paid on Palm Sunday. Church authorites in Toulouse required representatives of the Jewish community appear weekly at the cathedral to box their ears to remind them of their responsibility. Jews were burned at the stake in Blois (1171).
French monarchs varied greatly as to their toleration and treatment of Jews. Acions against Jews, however, were not always assiciated with the monarchy. Crusaders were respnsible for many apauling actions.
The situation worsened for Jews during thereign of King Philip Augustus. Philip was viciously anti-Semetic.
He justified his hated of the Jews on religious groiunds, but notably the actions he and many other monarchs too were largely income generating. After only 4 months on the throne, Philip imprisoned all the Jews in his territory. He demanded a loan for their release. He then annulled all loans made by Jews to Christians (1181). He ganered a percentage of the annuled loans. Next he confiscated Jewish property and expelled the Jews from Paris (1182). He decided to readmit them (1198). Jews had to pay a ransome return and a taxation system established to generate income for the Crown. the Fourth Lateran Council required Jews to wear a badge in Languedoc, Normandy, and Provence (1215). During Louis IX's reign (1226-70), anti-Jewish persecutions occurred in the western provinces. crusaders attacked the Jewish communities in Anjou and Poitou (1236). They attempted to baptize all the Jews in those communities. Jews who offered resistance were killed. The death toll may have reached 3,000 Jews. Jews were expelled from Brittany (1240). In Paris, Church officils began the infamous disputation of the Talmud. Essentially the Talmud was put on trial. Finally it was condemned and burned (1242). Despite the disputations, Jews continued to live in Paris. Most were limited to money-lending and commerce. French authorities allowed the Jews that managed to survive expulsion from Englnd to enter France. The King expelled French Jews and their property and synagogues confiscated (1254). After only a few years they were allowed to return. Phillip IV the Fair ascended to the throne (1285). He imprisoned French Jews and confiscated all their property except only the clothes that they were wearing (1305). He expelled an estimated 100,000 Jews. They were allowed to take with them only ones day’s food. Louis X, allowed the Jews to return (1315).
Jewish communites in Alsace were the target of violence (1338-47). We're not sure why that was. The Bubonic Plague (Black Death) struck Europe (1347-51). Europeans had no idea what caused the Plague and massive deaths. Many all over Europe blamed Jews. There were massacres in France, especially in the wast and southeast (1348-49). The pope intervened to protect the Jewish communities in Avignon and Comtat Venaissin. Attacks on Jews occuured in Paris and Nantes (1380). King Charles VI finally issued a definitive expulsion of Jews (1394).
During the medieval era despite all the persecution and expulsions, there were periods of relative calm and toleration in which Jrwish culture could develop. Il-de-France and Champagne were centers for Jewish scholarship. Other important areas of Jewish cultural development were the Loir Valley, Languedoc and Province. There were important centers of Talmdic center in the north. Jews in the south pursued grammar, linguistics, philosophy and science. Jews tended to excell in foreign languages and were involved in the translations of religious and other Arab and Latin texts into French. Perhaps the leasing medieval Jewish scholar in France was Rashi. He founded a yeshiva. He is known even today for his biblical commentary.
When reviewing the many drastic actions taken against Jews in France, it is difficult to understand how Jews survived in France at all. It is unclear what became of the Jews expelled from France and how many survived expullsion. There appears to have been a break after the expulsion of 1394. Some Jews may have survived in France by feigning conversion. But basically Jewish culture was extunguished and subsequent Jewish history in France devdlops from immigrants.
After expelling the Jews (1492), the Spanish Inquisition began to target Marranos--baptised Jews who attempted to secretly practice their faith. The samne occurred in Portugal. Some of these Marranos emigrated to France where the Inquisition was not active (mid-1500s). Over time in France many of these Marranos assimilated into Christian society. It was, however, the first time since the 1394 expulsion that Jews were tolerated in France. Pogroms in the Ukraine and Poland, especially the Chmeilnicki massacres (1648) drove Jews west. Some settled in Alsace and Lorraine. This was the beginning of an important Jewish community in the north. The Duke of Savoy declared Nice and Villefranche de-Conflent free ports. This brought Jewish immigrants to southern France. Jewish communities expanded during a period of increasing toleration. Two successful communities were Avignon and Comtat Venaissin (17th century). Jews participated in expanding commercial activity. They were allowed to participate in fairs and markets. The Jewish community of Alsace continued to grow and prosoer. Small numbers of Jews began appearing in Paris (early 18th century). Both Sephardic and
Ashkenazic Jews began arriving in Paris. The Sephardim came from southern France (Bordeaux, Avignon and Comtat Venaissin ). The Ashkenazim came from northern France (Alsace and Lorraine). The Sephardic Jews tended to be the most prosperous and took up residence along the Left Bank. The Ashkenazim clustered along the Right Bank. A kosher inn opened (1721). A synagogue was opened (1788). Even before the Revolution, the Royal Government began to revise the medieval laws concerning Jews. The "body tax" was repeaed. One estimate suggests that by the 1780s there were 500 Jews in Paris and perhaps 40,000 in all of France.
France is unique among all the countries which experienced the Holocaust. France was the only defeated Allied country whose government actively assisted the NAZIs. After the French surrender. The Vichy authorities actively assisted the NAZIs track down and deport Jews. [Eizenstat] The first action taken against French Jews after the 1940 invasion was the expulsion from Alsace. To my knowlege, this was one of the very few non-lethal expulsions conducted by the NAZIs. Presumably the master plan for killing the Jews had not yet been fully worked out. Another early action involving German Jews was deporting Jews in Western Landen (Baden, the Saar, and the Palatinate), including some of the oldest German Jewish families, in October 1940 to camps in the French Pyrenees (Gurs, Noé, Récébédou, and Rivesaltes). Gurs was the largest. The death rate was very high because there were not even the most basic facilities. The camps were run by Vichy authorities. The killing of Dutch, Belgian and French Jews began in July 1942 when the death camps in Poland became operational. Vivian Fry, before American entered the War, worked tirelessy in Vichy to build up a rescue network working with the Emergency Resue Committee, a private relief organization. The NAZIs had inserted a "suuender on demand clause" in Article 5 of the Franco German Armistace of 1940. Fry succeeded in resucing more than 1,500 artists, musicians, politicams, scientists, and writers, many but not all Jewish. The Germans make life a nightmare for French Jew, both in Vichy as well as the occupied area. Many French people risked their lives to protect Jews, including French people that were anti-semitic. One French girl recalls a priest who helped save her and her family describe how he disliked Jews, but saving them from the Germans was the "Christian thing" to do. [Cohn] Others assisted the Germans.
Smitha, Frank. "The Hebrews between Assyria and Egypt", The Ancient World.
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