Figure 1.--HBU believes this is the uniform of Les Compagnons de France.

When Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939, the French Army except for minor excursions waited behind the Maginot line. The Government, mindful of the horendous casulties incurred during World War I, hesitated to act. After the so called "Phony War", the Germans stryuck the first real blow. The German offerense in the West was begun on May 19, 1940 in the Low Countries. By the beginning of June, German tanks were pouring into France. The British evacuated at Dunkirk. The French Government evauated Paris on June 15. Marshall Pétain, the Victor of Verdun, was asked to form a Governmernt. On June 22 an armistace was signed at Compaigne, in the same railway car that the World War I armistace had been signed. Only part of France was occupied. This was the only such agreement that Hitler signed with one of the occupied countries. The new French Government was installed at Vichy and is this known as the Vichy Republic. For most Frenchmen the War was lost. Many saw no alternativem but to collaborate with the Germans.

Vichy

The terms of the June 1940 armistace between Germany and France divided France into an occupied and unoccupied zone, with a rigid demarcation or boundary line between the two. The Germans obrained direct control three-fifths of France, including northern and western France and the entire Atlantic coast which was critical to the Ferman war effort against Britain. The Atlantic coast region provided air bases for the Luftwaffe air campaign and the Kriegesmarine U-boat capaign. The rest of France was left to be administered by the Petain's Government at Vichy. Provisions of the armistice, the "surrender on demand clause", was an obligation to arrest and turn over anyone requested by the Germans. Thus the Germans to persue any one they wanted even in the unoccupied or Vichy zone. Initially this included Jews, Communists, Socialists, as well as political officials who had been outspokingly critical of the NAZIs. France was forced to disband its army, except for a minimal force of 100,000 men for maintaining domestic order. This was the same size force that Gerrmany had been allowed under the Versailles Peace Treaty. The 1.5 million French Prisioners of War (POWs) were to remain in Germanm prisoner of war camps. The French government agreed to stop military units from leaving France to fight with the British. France had to agree to pay for the cost the Germans incurred in occupying the country.

Vichy and Youth

Vichy's reaction to the shock of defeat was to blame a weakening in the moral fiber of the country's young people. Pétain and other right-wing Vichy leaders blamed the Third Republic which they complained ahad been dominated by Socialists and Jews. Concerning French youth Vichy blaned the French educational system which they saw as dominated by secular and even worse left-wing elements. Pétain also felt the schools placed to great an emphasis on scolarship and intelectual development. He felt that the schools should give more emphasis to building the moral fibre of French youth. Here his primary concern was with French boys. One reform in Vichy schools was to give more emphasis on phyical education. In a notable speech Pétain delivered (January 1, 1944), he insisted "ce qu'il faut à la France, à notre cher pays, ce ne sont pas des intelligences, mais des caractères" (`what France, our cherished country, needs is character not intelligence'). Vichy's National Revolution also was concerned about the growing secularization of French society. Pétain wanted more religious instruction in schools. Vichy reinstated religion as a compulsory subject (January 1941). In addituon to educational reforms, Vichy also gave considerable attention to youth movements.

French Scouting Movement: World War II

NAZI Germany invaded and defeated the French Army (June 1940). In the resulting Armistace agreement, France was divided into an occupied zone (northern and western France and an unoccupied zone administered by Marshal Petain's collaborationist Goverment at Vichy. NAZI German occpationist authorities banned Scouting. This was the same action the Germans took in other occupied countries. The Germans as in Germany itself want all youth activities ynder Government control. In particular they did want any uniformed groups, even youth groups, to be outside their control. In the unoccupied zone, Vichy officials permitted the Scouts de France to continue. Famed French Scouting artist Pierre Joubert reportedly moved from Paris to the unoccupied zone so he could comtinue to remain active in Scouting. (After the War some looked on him as a collaborationist because of this.) The Vichy Goverment attempted to control the Scouts and other youth movements, but many of the members strongly favored the Allies and this sentiment increased as the war began to turn against the Germans. After the Allies invaded French North Africa (November 1942), the Germans occupied the unoccupied area as well. I do not know what action the Germans took toward Scouting at this tome.

Political Background

Unlike some of the Nordic countries, there was no French NAZI parties of any significance. Two small parties appropriate the name, but they had no real following. Two politicial parties acheieved some prominance in occupied France.

Parti Popularie Français (PPF)

The Parti Popularie Français (PPF) was founded in 1934 by Jacques Doriot who was a former communist. Doriot quarled with Moscow and formed a right-wing party. The party before the War calimed a membership of 0.25 million and after the German occupation they claomed 0.5 million. This is undobtedly an exageration, actual membership must have been much smaller. The PPF was theoretically restricted to the Occupied Zone. All political party activity was banned in the Unoccupied Zone under the thinly disguised title of the Mouvement Populaire Française. The Third Republic had banned the wearng of politiccal uniforms. After the occupation, the PPF resumed wearing their blue shirted uniforms which had become synomamous with Fascism in France. (In the same way that the German NAZI Strom Troopers of the SA were known as the brown shirts.) The PPF Storm Troopers were called the Service d'Ordre, later change to :es Gardes Françaises. The youth branch of the PPF was known as the Jeunesse Popilaire Française (JPF). Like the PPFService d'Ordre, they wore blue shirts. The full uniform, which not everyone possessed, consisted of a dark blue shirt, black tie, dark blue "battle dress" (short tunic), blue trousers and anklets, darl blue betet or side cap, leather belt, and cross strap. As a result of war time shortages, most members only wore the blue shirt, black tie, and trousers with the appropriate brassard.

Rassemblement National Populaire (RNP)

Rassemblement National Populaire (RNP) or National Popular Rally was the other major colaborantist group. It was founded by Marcel Déat in February 1941, after the Germans had occupied France. Déat was a soldier and politiciam of some distinction, but in the 1930s drtifted toward fascism. The RNP claimed a membership of 0.5 million, probably because the PPF made a similar claim. Actual membership was only a small frfaction of this. A montha after its formatuion, the RNP set up a uniformed militia--the LNP. The youth section of the RNP was the Jeunesse Nationale Populaire (JNP). They simply wore a smaller version of the adult RNP uniforms.

Parti Franciste

The Parti Franciste (PF) was formed in 1933. It was unique among the various collaborationist factions in that it was the only group to openly itself as fascist. The "franciste" in the Party's name defies translation, but "Frenchist" comes the closest to indicating the real meaning. The PF was founded by Marcel Bucard, a decorated World War I war hero. The PF was much adicted to ceremonies cdelebrating deaths and battle sacrifice. They were initially modeled more on the Italian Fascists than the German NAZIs. Like the other right wing groups, they had blue shirts--but of a lighter "French" blue color. The PR youth movement were known as the Jeunesse Franciste (JF) and was made up of a boys' and girls' section. The uniform was esentially the same as the adult party uniform, which was a light blue shirt, a navy blue tie, and navy blue trousers. The adults wore a navy blue beret while the JF boys for their headgear, when worn, was usually a side cap rather than the beret. The JF girls wore a dark blue skirt, white ankle socks, and the standard light blue shirt. The Vichy Government in December 1942 declared the JF as the only officially recognized youth novement in, according to one author, the occupied zone. (After the American invasion of North Africa in October 1942, the Germans had occupied the unoccupied areas of France.) It is unclear why the Vichy Government so designated the JF, one source says that it was more to snub Déat and Doriot than to honor the openly fascist JF.

Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire (MSR)

This short-lived group was a break-away element of the RNP. It functioned from October 1941 to September 1942. The youth branch was the Jeunesse Sociale Révolutionnaire, a name later changed to the Jeunes Equipes de France. Unlike the adult members, they wore a khaki shirt and according to one source, a brassard with the letters "JEF".

Ligue Française (LF)

The Lingue Française (LF) was founded in early 1941 by Pierre Constantini, a demented Corsican air force officer. The groups full name was the Ligue Française anti-brittanique, anti-sémitique et anti-bolchevique (the French anti-British, anti-Semetic, and anti-Bolshevic League). Its aim was a European revolution brought about through Franco-German cooperation. The uniform of the party's storm troopers appears to be based on the NAZI SA rather than similar blue-shirted units of other French right-wing groups. The Ligue's youtyh section was Les Jeunes de Framce et de l'Empire which was composed of the Cadets de France (10-15 year olds) and Phalanges de Garçpns (16-21 year olds). The Ligue was virulently anti-semetic and had a special unit (Sections Spéciales anti-juives). This Special Anti-Jewish Sections cooperated with SD in Paris. The level of cooperation with the Germans was made clear at the funerals of LF members killed by the resistance in that their coffins were draped with the SS black flag. The Ligue signed a cooperation agree,ent with the PPF--unsual as cooperation among collaboranist parrties was rare.

Other Parties

There were several other small right wing parties of no real political significance. These groups had various orientations, including a monarchist group. One was a Breton group favoring independence from France. It was promoted by the Germans as part of a policy of promoting French disunity. The Parti Nationaliste Breton (PNB) thus developed a more fascist tone.

Youth Secretariat

There does not seem to be a great deal of information about youth movements in Vichy state papers. Most of the available informaton comes from French historians. One Israeli historian in particular who has focused on World War II youth groups has assessed available documentation on Équipes Nationales. [Yagil] Vichy youth organization was strongly influenced by Georges Pelorson, Vichy Assistant to the Secretary of State for Youth. The Vichy authoities after the Armistice (June 1940) realised that French youth was an essential factor in France's renewal. The country had been stunned by the overwhelming German victory. The basic premise of Vichy was that further resistance to the NAZIs was futile, the Germns had won the War. A general Secretariat of Youth, was created in the State Secretariat for Public Education. Georges Latt administered it (until March 1943). He was replaced by Félix Oliver-Martin (until December 1943). The agency was redesignated the youth Commissariat and administered by Maurice Gatt and finally Tartarian. The Vichy men discussed the creation of a single Vichy youth movement. Marshal Pétain turned down the creation of a single youth movement. The Laval Government impressed by the fanaticism of the Hitler Youth movement favored the creation of a single national youth movement. Marshal Pétain was interested, but unwilling to disband existing groups, especilly the Scouts. Marshal Hubert Lyautey noted for hos colonial administration influenced many Vichy men. He was interested in youth movements, especially scouting. After World War I he turned to Fascism. Georges Latt was a strong promoter of a single youth movenent. He had been the general manager of the Renault factories. His youth director was Pierre Goutt, a lawyer at the Council of State. He had been one of the national leaders of Scouting. Louis Garrone was succeeded by a Chritian Socilist. These Vichy figures promoted a youth (beginning November 1941). Youth organization varied in the Free (Unoccupied) and Occupied Zone. This changed when the Germans moved into the Free Zone (November 1942).

Free Zone

The Vichy Government controlled the youth movements in the Free Zome already existing before the war. The principal organization was French Scouting with about 115,000 members. There was also a Youth Hostel association (CJF). There were newly created groups like the Companions of France of with about 30,000 members, the Youth of France and Overseas, the Youth of the Marshal and others. The Vichy Government's goal was to promote civic and moral order. Marshal Pétain proposed among other things, the restoration of the national spirit in the context of French realities and the construction of the new state by the National Revolution.

Occupied Zone

The Germans restricted youth organization in the Occupied Zone. The Youth of the Marshal was authorized by the Germans. This organization soon became totally oriented toward the Germans. The only other movements authorized by the Germans were the youth sections affiliated with the political parties collaborating with the Germans. This included the Youth of the R.N.P de DEAT, Yyoung People of the P.P.F of DORIOT, Young Francists of Bucard and others. Their membership probbly did not exceed 15,000 members. Young people in the occupied area had few real alternatives. There were some organisations with no political purpose, such as the Maritime and Colonial League", which was popular in high schools. There was also the Youths of Music of France, which continued even after Vichy.

Executive School

Vichy authorities decided that Executive Schools were needed to train leaders of youth movements and state organizations. The best known was the school of Uriage led by Segonzac Walnut. It was ordered dissolved by Laval (late 1942). In the occupied area, the school of the Chapel in Serval was directed by Jacques Bousquet. The program and doctrine was different at the two schools. Bousquet promoted a New Europe dictrine. The Vichy idea of the schools was civic and revolutionary training institutions. .

Autonomous Youth Movements

The youth movement in France during World War II is a much more complicated topic than we had antticipated. In addition to the youth sections of collaborating political parties, several autonomous youth groups operated in the Vichy unoccupied zone. Here we have noted quite a variety of groups which contrasts to other occupied countries in which the German and colaborationist authorities set up a single Fascist youth movement. This was primarily a result of the Germns leaving a substabntial part of France unoccupied for more than 2 years (June 1940-November 1942). We have only limited information on the different French nationalist groups at this time. A factor here is that after liberation (August 1944), the individuals involved for the most part wanted to forget their participation in these groups. There may be some overlap here with different sources using different names for the same group. Vichy's most important initiatives were: 1) les Compagnons de France and 2) Les Chantiers de Jeunesse. We have little information on membership or age distribution of the membership. The few images we have found show older boys participating.

Chantiers de Jeunesse (CJ)

A Vichy youth effort was Les Chantiers de la jeunesse (CJ). I think this translates as Youth Singers, but I do not think it was a choral group. They were a uniformed group created for young men of draft age. With Vichy's army limited by the Germans, the CJ was an alternative to national military service which was seen as a character building experience. The CJ was a quasi-military group. The program involved communal living, hard work and indoctrination into the principle's of Vichy's National Revolution. The group was strongly nationalistic, but unlike what Vichy officials anticipated, most members were strongly pro-Allied and anti-German. Their politics varied with many Gaullists and royalists. It was a CJ member, Bonnier de la Chapelle, who assasinated Admiral Darlan in Algiers (December 24, 1942). [MacVane, p. 149.] The attitude of the CJ members toward Vichy and the Germans was not helped when the NAZI reverses meant that more labor was needed in the Reich. Conscription for French workers began to become increasingly important in 1943. Vichy and the Germans began using the CJ to fill the quotas.

(Les) Compagnons de France (CF)

Les Compagnons de France (CF) was formed in the aftermath of the German victory (July 1940). The founder was a civil servant and scoutmaster. It became a major youth group whioh promoted health, physical exercise, outdoor activities, sport, and communal living. Vichy authorities approved the CF as an officially approved, voluntary youth organization for all of Unoccupied France (August 1940). It was for boys 15-20 years old to do work of "national unity" such as assisting with the harvest or clearing war damage. As much of the French Army was intered as POWs after the armistace was signed, there was a severe manpower shortage. The French Army secunded officers to serve as leaders. The CF had organized 350 companies with 18,000 members by January 1941. The CF attempted to recruit girls beginning in January 1942, but with little success. Jewish boys were at first allowed to join, but were excluded in May 1942 as Vichy's anti-Semetic policies became more pronounced. Membership reached 50,000 in early 1942, but then fell off rapidly as German reverses mounted and labor concriptions began to increase anti-German feeling. The political orientation of the CF is not easy to categorize. Support from Vichy authorities suggests a Fascist or at least right-wing orientation. Some have argued that the CF's focus on civic responsibility was more oruented to the Boy Scout movement. [Larkin, p. 91.] The CF was pro-Vichy, but never pro-NAZI. The Germans never trusted it and ordered the organization disbanded (January 1944). The uniform consisted of a dark blue shirt and dark blue long trousers or short pants. Boys wearing shorts wore white kneesocks. The boys according to the CF's official handbook wore navy blue berets, leather belt and tie. The color of the tie varied with the boys' ranks; beige for the lower ranks, purple for NCOs, yellow for junior officers, and navy blue for senior officers. this arraingment may have varied as other sources specify different colors.

Figure 2.--An officer and boys of the Équipes Nationales on a field exercise.

Équipes Nationales (EN)

The Équipes Nationales (National Squads) was another Vichy inspired organization. It was formed in 1941 to perform social tasks in both zones of France. The image here suggests that the boys were also involved in camping and other Scout-like organizations (figure 2). This was theoretically a non-political formation, although uniformed. The boys reportedly wore a dark blue uniform, although the inmage here shows a light colored shirt. The emblem was a celtic crossm an emblenm associated with fascism since it is a version of the sun cross, another name for the swastica. The EN boys were later in the war empoloyed in clearing air raid damage.

Jeunes de l'Europe Nouvelle (JEN)

The pre-war Comité France-Allemagne (France-Germany Committee) was, after the German victory, revived in September 1940 with a new name, the Groupe "Collaboration. JEN was mostly composed of middle class or wealthy members who above all else were cautious. As it did not aspire to be a political party, it operated in both the occuopied and unoccupied zones. The JEN was very circumspect towards both Vichy and the Germans, its youth branch, Les Jeunes de l'Europe Nouvelle (The Youth of the New Europe), however, was much less inhibited. They came out openly on the German side. Some were even armed by the SD and fought againsdt the Resistance. The JEN also operated among French workers in Germany where it spread collaborationist propoganda with the approval of the Vichy Government. The JEN uniform was a dark blue shirt, black tie, and dark blue trousers.

Jeunesse de France d'Outre Mer (JFOM)

Another "private enterprise" group was the Jeunesse de France d'Outre Mer (The Youth of France and Overseas) which was founded by Henry E. Pugibet and Jean-Marcel Renault in Marseilles during January 1941, but exclusive leadership soon passed to Renault. The JFOM was more comitted to collaborating with the Germans than Les Compagnons de France. It was open to youngsters from 9 to 14 years of age (Les Cadets) and to young adults as old as 25 in the JFOM proper. Jews were excluded from the start. They claimed a membershio of 30,000 in October 1941. The uniform was a grey shirt, dark blue tie, and dark blue trousrs. Girls wore a dark blue skirt. After the Germans occupied the formerly unoccupied area in November 1942, the JFOM joined forces with Bucard's Jeunesse Franciste and thus became part of the only officially recognized youth movement in the north.

(Les) Jeunes du Maréchal

Les Jeunes du Maréchal (Marshall Lads) was organized by Jacques Bousquet who was a teacher at the Lycée Voltaire in Paris. The group was decidely fascist and it took on a pro-German stance. They only functiined in the occupied zone. Their uniforms varied with both navy blue and the lighter French blue. They wore a red reancisque on a white shild on the left breast pocket of their shirt. They were active in recruiting French high school and college boys for the NSKK. The Marshall Lads became so slavishly pro-German that Bousquet actually supressed the organization in July 1943. (One wonders if the War had no begun to go badly for the Germans that Bousquent would have done so. Bousquet went on to become the director of the École des Cdres (Staff Training College) at Chapelle-en-Serval in the occupied zone which was more overtly collabirationist than its opposite number at Uriage in the unoccupied zone.

Mouvement Jeunesse

The Secretaraiat of Youth at Vichy created a Mouveement Jeunesse with the goal of encompassing all youth groups in the unoccupied zone which were sympahthetic to the ideals of the regime. There was also a back-up Les Amis de Jeunesse (Fiends of Youth) movement. Both groups wore a blue or grey shirt with a black tie and daek blue trousers. No information is available on membership, but could not have been large goven the mumber of uniformed youth groups.

Gender Policy

Vichy's concern with youth was primarily with boys, as least as far as the youth movemrnt was concerned. There were no femaal equivalent for Vichy's Les Compagnons de France or Les Chantiers de la jeunesse, although a few girls may have participated. We are not sure what Vichy's policy was toward the Guides. Vichy was, however, very concernned about girls and young women, in large measure because of France's declining birth rate. This was seen as one indicator of national weakness and moral decay brought on by secularism and left-wing socialist ideology. Vichy sought to promote traditional conservative gender roles. Vichy saw the proper place for women as in the home having and caring for children and creating a pleasant home environment for their husbands. To promote more births, Vichy increased family allowances (April 1941). Mothers who stayed at home got an even larger payment. Vichy also introduced a law which prohibited divorce during the first 3 years of marriage (April 1941). Abortion was illegal and the penalty for such procedures was death. There were executions for just such infractions diring the Vichy era. Vichy authorities also modified the school curriculum to increase the emphasis on domestic (home economics) subjects like sewing and cooking (August 1941). Of course, Vichy family allowances broke down as the Germans increasingly pillaged the French economy and food and other shortahes began to develop. The German refusal to release French POWs and the consciption of workers for labor in Reich war industries also adversly impacted Vichy family policy.

Sources

Larkin, M. France since the Popular Front: Government and People 1936-1986 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).

MacVane, John. On the Air in World War II (William Morrow and Company: New York, 1979), 384p.

Yagil, Limoe. "The New Man and the National Revolution of Vichy" (University Press of the Septentrion). Chapte 9 deals with Vichy.