Figure 1.--This painting by French artist Baron François Gérard depicts 'Marius Returning to Rome'. It was painted while the French Revolution was unfolding (1789). The paimtimg illustrates the vengence enacted against Sula's supporters.

The roots of Roman civil wars that would dominate the Empire had its roots in the Social War (91-87 BC), where Rome's Italian city allies (socii) revolted demanding citizenship and equal rights. Rome prevailled, but for the most part conceeded citizenship. The Social War exposed deep social divisions in Roman society. This laid the ground work for the power struggles between generals and the Senate. The 1st century BC finds the two major fctions in Rome ready for drastic action. Assasination was no longer sufficent to quell the popular party. The two major military commanders each championed one of the factions. Marius was the champion of the popular party. Sulla favored the aristocracy. The Marian reforms (100s BC) opening the military to the lamdless lower class signiocantly strenthned Roman military power, but it fundamentally changed the Roman state. Until the Marian reforms, the Army was loyal he the Roan Republic/Senate. Once his reforms took hold, the Army became loyal to thei commanders. This will doom the Republic. The first such commander was Marius, but he would have to contend with Sulla. This would lead to the first Roman Civil War. The result was a Roman bloodbath. This was the Rome that Caesar was born into. Republicans blamed the death of the Republic on Caesar, but this was actually the impact of the Civil War--political rivalry, social tensions, and military ambition. Marius, the populist leader, and Sulla, a patrician who championed the Senate, first ollided over military command and political influence. Their differences escalating from heated political rivalry to open warfare with their loyal armies. Sulla’s victory would defintively established the precedent of generls using armies under their command to seize political power.

Gaius Marius

Gaius Marius (c157-86 BC) was a noted Roman general and politician, consul seven times. Marius was a brilliant commnder, achieving important victories. He was populasr with his troops, but not a calculsating politican or a good public speaker. He was of the equestrian class and this never received the education in Greek standard for the upper classes. He thus never extended his populrity with the sariticrcy despite his mlitry victories. Historians suspect that this casused an inferiority complex and was a factor in his cruelty. He was the first Roman general to demonsrrate the political support that a popular general could generate from the votes of his army veterans. Marius dominated Rome in the final decade of the 2nd century. He ruled Rome through command of the army, he first general to do this. Marius reorganized the Army (104 BC). The Marian reforms (100s BC) opening the military to the lamdless lowerclass significantly strenthned Roman military power, but it fundamentally changed the Roman stste. Until the Marian reorms, the Army was loyal he the Roan Republic/Senate. Once he refoprms tool hold, tyhe Army became loyal to the commanders. Marius and Sulla argue as to who shall command the Roman forces in a campaign against King Mithridates VI of Pontus. Sulla marches in Rome for the first time with the legions he commanded in the Social War. Violating Roman law, he enters Rome with his legions (88 BC). An aging Marius flees to Africa. Sulla executes Tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus, the remaining spokesman of the popular party. With the opposition silenced, Sulla imposes arbitrary measures. He is also able to confirm his command of the expedition against King King Mithridates in the East. He leaves Rome in command of the expedition (87 BC). Cornelius Cinna a popular leader and enemy of Sulla tried to implement Sulpicius' reforms. He is drven from the city, but rallies legions in Campanis and is joined by Marius who returned from Africa. They enter Rome with their legions and Cinna and Marius is recognized as Counuls. They outlaw Sulla and conduct a vindictive massacre of senators and other patricans loyal to Sulla. Marius died (86 BC), but Cinna continued to rule.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-79 BC) was another succesful military commander. He wasthe son of a ninor official, but was a patrician family. He was not initially drawn roward the military, but rather exhibited a tadte for luxury and politics. But in Rome politicsamd the military were intertwined. He is miliary career began under Marius (107 BC). He was a quaestor (financial magistrate) in Africa during the war against King Jugurtha of the Numidians. Sulla capture of Jugurtha brough attention to him ht displeased Marius. Sulla was still with Msarius in the the war against the invading Celts (Cimbri). Mariusbecame increaingly jealus of ythe attention Sula asreeiving. And Sulla transferred to the service of Marius’ co-commander, Quintus Lutatius Catulus. (103 BC). Sulla served as a praetor (a chief magistrates) (97 BC). Sulla fought in the Social War (90–89 BC), He was elected became one of the two consuls—the highest office in the republic (88 BC). The Senate placed in command of the war against King Mithradates VI of Pontus, a kingfpom in Asia Minor/Antolia. That was a command Marius wanted. And through his alliance with tribune Publius Sulpicius Rufus of the popular party, Marius go the command. Sula was incensed and with his army marched on Rome. Sulpicius was killed, but Marius escaped. Sulla emerges victorious and was appointed Dictator. This was the first full scale Roman civil war. He is declred dictator (82–79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms designed to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. In late 82 he assumed the name 'Felix' believing in his own luck. Sula conducteds a blood bath of anyone he saw as an Marius supporter ememy (82-79 BC). He used proscriotions, a list posted in the Forum identifying them as enemies of the state and outlaws. A young Julius Ceasar is related to Marius, but is not on the list. He wisely leaves Rome. A large number of Roman aristocrats associated with the populares were proscribed and their property confiscated. One source notes 520 men. Sulla strengthened the power of the Senate, weakened the power of the tribunes, and stopped the grain dole. Sulla often confiscates the land of his enremies and gives it to his veterans. Having no knowledge of agriculture, much of the land is mismanged or abandoned by the new owners. This affects agriculural production, making Rome increasingly deoendant on imported grain. North Africa becomes the principal source of grain. Sulla died (78 BC).

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Created: 12:04 AM 2/16/2026
Last updated: 12:04 AM 2/16/2026