Figure 1.--Here we see a Ruthenian boy from Jasina. The post card is undated, but was probably taken during the 1930s. |
|
Ruthenians and Ruthenia itself have a complicated history. This is the case of many provinces that did not sucessfuly establish themselves as nation states. It is a geographic and culturo-ethnic term created by the Austrians to describe an area Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples. The geopgraphic area has varied overtime, but has centered on the Carpethian mountains between Russia, the Ukraine, Hungary, and Poland. And these and other states have overtime controlled Ruthenia. Ruthenia is a Latin-based term describing the ancient Rus. The new states of Slovakia and Belarus now have entered into the geographic equation. Ruthenians ethbically and culturally seem to have most in common with Uktanians and the Austrians prepered the term in part because it separated the Ruthenians from the Russian controlled Ukranians. Ruthenia was the northeastern areaa of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and controlled by the Hungarians who pursued a policy of Hungarianization.
Ruthenia is a geographic and culturo-ethnic term created by the Austrians to describe an area of Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples. The term Subcarpathian Ruthenia has also been used. The geopgraphic area has varied overtime, but has centered on the Carpethian mountains between Russia, the Ukraine, Hungary, and Poland. And these and other states have overtime controlled Ruthenia. Ruthenia was the northeastern areaa of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The actual borders have varied as the various empires and countrs have vied for control of the area. The new states of Slovakia and Belarus now have entered into the geographic equation.
Ruthenia is a Latin-based term describing the ancient Rus (the Ukrainian Rusyn), the first Russian state centered on Kiev. Ruthenians ethnically and culturally seem to have most in common with Ukranians and the Austrians prefered the term in part because it destinuished the Ruthenians from the Russian controlled Ukranians. Ruthenians was thus essentially the term used for Ukrainians by the Hapsburg monarchy. The Ruthenians were Ukrainian-speaking mountain people who inhabited the narrow valleys of the Carpathian Mountains.
Ruthenia as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, however, was controlled by the Hungarians who pursued a policy of Hungarianization.
Ruhenia has over time been controlled by the various empires that have dominated Eastern and Central Europe including the Soviet Empire.
The Hungarian monarchy acquired Ruthenia (11th century). The Ruthenians at that time had no sence of a national idetity. They were for the most part poor people making a living as peasant laborors, shephards, and woodsmen. In feudal Europe, the Ruthenians became vassals and serfs of the Hungarian magnates who controlled the flat plains of the Tisza River. Ruthenia at the time was called Kárpátalja by the Hungarians.
The Ottoman Empire pressing into Europe defeated the Hungarian Army at the Battle of Mohács, ending the Hungarian monarchy (1526). King Louis II and most of the Hungarian nobels were killed. Ruthenia became a part of the Ottoman Empire.
The Hapsburgs inherited the Hungarian throne and with the decline of Ottoman power, Ruthenia as well. Ruthenians changed little during the Ottoman Empire or the Austrian/Hungarian rule which followed it. Ruthenia continued to be a largely agrarian province, little affecte by the industrialization sweeping Europe (19th century).
The Hapsburgs acquired Galicia as part of the Polish partitions (1772). Galacia was located north of the Carpathians. The Habsburgs (Austrians) as they began to administer the province soon realized that the East Slavic people differed from both both Poles and Russians. Theey tended to call themselves Rusyny, but to the Hapsburg officials this sounded to much like the German word for Russians--Russen. The Austrians thus adopted the designation Ruthenen (Ruthenians). They persuisted in using the term until the end of the Empire.
Unlike some other peoples in the Austrian Empire, the largely agrarian Ruthenians remained poltically passive. The 1848 Revolutions swept through offering the possibility of major changes in central Europe. Ruthenia was not significatly affected, but there were Ruthenian delegates to the Slavic Congress (1848). The Austrian Empire survived the revolution, in part thanks to Russian intervention. Ruthenians like other ethnic groups swithin the Empire appealed to Vienna for a degree of autonomy and the right for cultural development, especially language rights. A key figure in the Ruthenian revival (development of a Ruthenian national/cultural identity) was Oleksander Dukhnovych--a Uniate priest. He was a teacher and author who published books in an effort to prevent Hungarianization. The Ruthenian revival was further aided by a comprable movement in Galicia (Austrian administration).
The Ruthenian Revival was stopped by Austria's defeat in the Austro-Prussian War (1866). The resulting Compromise of 1867--the Ausgleichdramatically changed constitutional arrangements in the Austrian Empire. Hungary became a full partner in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Ruthenian came under Hungarian Administration. Education was one of the instutions affected. Under Hungarian administration most education in Ruthenisan (Ukranian) ceased. Alnmost all primary schools and all of the small number of secondary schools were taught in Hungarian. In part because of the policies of Hungarian administrators, many Ruthenians emigrated--over 50,000 people. This was a substanyial number given the realtively small Ruthenian population. The emigration ended only with World War I (1914).
A Ukranian national movement began to develop after the Napoleonic Wars. The nationaliss began to make some headway (1840s). The nationalists disliked the term "Little Rus" and instead promoted Ukrayina. By the 1880s and 1900s, the name "Ukraine" became an increasingly popular term, replacing "Ruthenia" among the Ruthenian/Ukrainian people of Tsarist Russia. The term Ruthenia persiste only wkthin the Austro-Hugarian Empire. The term came to mean the Carpatheian area of the western Ukraine under Austo-Hungarian control. The term Ruthenia by the early 20th century had been replaced by "Ukraine" in Galicia/Halychyna.
Ruthenia under Hungarian administration remained largely politically inert. As World War was foughtvto an end, it became increasingly clear that there would be major political change in Eastern and Central Europe. Thus the various national groups vied for the creation of nation states in post-War Europe. This was conducted from groups with each country as well as political groups organized in Allied controled Europe (primarily Paris and London). There was also activity among immigrant groups in the United States. Much of the notable political activity on behalf of Ruthenia during the War was conducted by Ruthenian emigrants in the United States. They organized groups with differet political objectives (uatonomy within Hungary, independence, union with an independent Ukrainia state, union with the Soviet Union, or union with the Czechs. The most prominant American Ruthenian leader, Gregory Zatkovic, negotiated with the father of modern Czechoslovakia--Masaryk. They agreed to make Subcarpathian Ruthenia part of the Czechoslovak Republic.
Redrawing central Europe was a major undertaking at the end of World war I. Gregory Zatkovic helped to lead Ruthenia into join the new state of Czechoslovakia. This diposition of Ruthenia received international sanction in the Treaty of Saint-Germain (September 1919). The Treaty was the peace treaty between Austria and the Allies ending World War I. One provision guaranteed Subcarpathian Ruthenia autonomy within the new Czechoslovak Republic. At this time, Ruthenia took on the geographic description to the area south of the Carpathian mountains--Carpathian Ruthenia (Mukachevo, Uzhhorod and Prešov). The people were a group of East Slavic highlanders. By this time the Galician Ruthenians (now in the new state of Poland) mostly saw them selves as Ukrainians. Ruthenians in Czechoslovakia were not united about their future.
Some were Russophiles who thought Ruthenians should be part of the Russian nation. This was compplicated by the Revolution which creted the Soviet Union. Others like the Galacians saw themselves as Ukranians. Oters wanted were Ruthenophiles who wanted an independent Ruthenians nation and develop the Rusyn language and culture.
The Ruthenians were culturally and ehnically closest to the Ukranians, but the Ukraine was part od Soviet Russia ans subjected to a terrible famine by Stalin. Thus democratic Czechoslovakia offerng cultural autonomy offered a viable alternative.
Hitler's first forign victim was the only demoracy in central Europe--Czechoslovakia. First he obtained the Sudentenland at Munich (September 1938) and then invaed what was left of the country (March 1939). Slovakia suceeded from Czechoslovakia hopeing to take Ruthenia with it. The Ukrainophile president of Carpatho-Ruthenia, Avhustyn Voloshyn declared its independence as Carpatho-Ukraine (March 15, 1939), Hungary with NAZI approval invaded to supress Ruythenian independence. The Hungarians participated in The NAZI invasion of the Soviet Union. Defeats in the east, however, were followed by the Red Army driving west. The Soviets after smashing the Whermsacht and Hungarian Armies reached Ruthenia (1944). Many Hungarians in Ruthenia fled with the Germans as the Red Army approached.
It was World War II and the Red Army which finally settled the fare of Ruthenia. The Soviets forced Czechoslovakia to give up Carpatho-Ruthenia (1946). It became part of the Zakarpattya oblast of the Ukraine.
With the dsolution of the Soviet Union, Ruthenia became part of the independent nation of Ukraine.
Ruthernians after the Ottoman conquest continued to remain faithful to the Eastern Orthodox Christians. When after the decline of the Ottomans, the Hapsburgs acquired Ruthenia, the population was still mostly Eastern Orthodox. Most Ruthenians converted from to the Uniate Church (mid-17th century). The Uniate Church held to Orthodox rites, but transferred spiritual allegiance to Rome. As part of this process, the Hungarian clergy was able to win the loyalty of their Eastern-oriented Ruthenian subjects. The religious situation was little touched by the Reformation. There were changes, however, in the 19th century. Tsarist Russia after the Napoleonic Wars adopted a policy of Pan-Slavism. Under Alexander III in he late-19th century it became increasingly pronounced.
Russian pan-Slavic propaganda touch many Ruthenians who were becoming increasingly disturbed by Hungarinization. As a result, there were many converts to Eastern Orthodoxy.
Navigate the Boys' Historical Clothing Web Site:
[Introduction]
[Activities]
[Biographies]
[Chronology]
[Clothing styles]
[Countries]
[Bibliographies]
[Contributions]
[Essays]
[FAQs]
[German glossary]
[Images]
[Links]
[Registration]
[Tools]
[Boys' Clothing Home]
Navigate the Boys' Historical Clothing national pages:
[Return to the Main Austro-Hungarian page]
[Return to the Main countries page]
[Australia]
[Belgium]
[Czechoslovakia]
[England]
[France]
[Germany]
[Ireland]
[Italy]
[Japan]
[Korea]
[Mexico]
[New Zealand]
[Scotland]
[United States]