Figure 1.--The mot importnt Japnese Govenor General of Korea was Gen. Kazushige Ugaki. He played an important role in the Army's rise to comntrol the prlimentary government. He proved, however, not radical enough and developed enemies within the Army. As a result he was side-lined to Korea. There he proimoted a major industrislization effort, focuing on heavy industry and munitions that could support an invasion of China. Here we see him in Tokyo during June 1934. The press caption here read, "Picture shows Governor-General of Korea, General Kazushige Ugaki in Japanese dress with his children (from left) Mitsuko (18), Miss Hideko (21), Kazuo (20), and Miss Yoshiko (15) during his morning walk near his residence. He is reported to be the most likely Premier of Japan siuceeding to the SaitoonCabinet, of which resignatiomn has been generaly expected here at the end of this month as the result of the recent officials' scandal problem in Financial office."

The Japenese even before the Koreans tried to close themselves off from the world. Commodore Perry forced the Japanese to open to the West (1853). This led to the Menji Restoration and Japan's enbrace of Westrern technology. The Government fostered industry and developed a modern army and navy. This mean that by the end of the century, Japan was the most powerful country in Asia. Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War (1895). Japan next defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). Competition between China, Russia, and Japan was what allowed much smaller Korea to maintain its independence. Japan gradually expanded its commercial influence in Korea. As the dominant military power in northeastern Asia, Japan was able to annex and colonize Korea (1910). The Japan began a brutal attempt to extinguish Korean culture. Japanese authorities did not permit Koreans to speak their own language in public. Schools were conducted in Japanese. Korean history or literature was not taught. Authorities seized both land and harvests from Koreans. A peaceful protest by Koreans including many students (March 1, 1919) led to a brutal crackdown. Many protestors were shot or inprisoned. Koreans could only preserve their culture and language privately in their homes. Interesyingly, the Japanese in the early colonial period did not expell Christian missionaries. Chistinity gradually became associate with resistance to Japanese domination. Korea was not only important strategically to China, but it had important natural resources. Raw materials in the north served as a basis for industry which Japan promoted. The agricultural south became an important source of rice and other agicultural products, although this declined over time as rice was needed to feed the expanding industrial work force in the north and the Japanese military occupation force.

Background

The Japenese even before the Koreans tried to close themselves off from the world. Commodore Perry forced the Japanese to open to the West (1853). This led to the Menji Restoration and Japan's enbrace of Westrern technology. The Government fostered industry and developed a modern army and navy. This meant that by the end of the century, Japan was the most powerful country in Asia. The first action by the Japanese was to negotiate a commercial treaty with Korea (1876). Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War (1895). Japan next defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). This cleared the way for outright Japanese annexation of Korea.

Annexation (1910)

Competition between China, Russia, and Japan was what allowed much smaller Korea to maintain its independence during the 19th century. Japan gradually expanded its commercial influence in Korea. and then as the dominant military power in northeastern Asia, agter defeating China and Rusia, Japan was able to annex and colonize Korea (1910). In this action, Japan acted unilaterally with no suppot within Korea itself. The Emperor of Korea did not sign the annexation treaty. It was a clear violation of international conventions.

Campaign to Extinguish Korean Culture and Identity

The Japanese began a comprehensive and brutal attempt to extinguish Korean cultureand traditions. [Hoare and Pares, pp. 50–67.] Japanese authorities did not permit Koreans to speak their own language in public. Schools were conducted in Japanese. Korean history or literature was not taught. Koreans could only preserve their culture and language privately in their homes. There is some difference as to when Japan began its anti-Korean campaign. The effort was not unusal, there are many similar examples in history. The effort, for example, was similat to Tsarist Russification programs and Soviets efforts to supress national minorities. It is similar in particular to Tsarist and Soviet efforts in Poland. There is some difference in available sources as to just how intense these efforts were at girst after annexation (1910). It seems that the Japanese intensified their campsign agsinst Koreanan natiinlism as a result of continued Korean resistance. Korean students staged a nation-wide protest (November 1929). The Japanese response was to strengthen military rule (1931). This was a party of the seizure of Manchuria in the same year. Japan invaded China proper resulting in the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937), Japan a more intense effort of destoying Korean culture and identity. Japan made any expression of Korean culture illegal. Worship at Japanese Shinto shrines was made mandatory. One source says that the school curriculum was overhuled to eliminate any teaching in the Korean language and lessons in Korean history. [Hoare and Pares, pp. 50–67.] We had thought that Japanese was made the language of instruction earlier. Here we need more details. The Korean language was banned, All Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese names. All publishing in Koren, including mnewspaoers werebanned. The assult on Korean culture included art and culturl trasures. Japanese authorities destroyed or transfered culturl artifcts to Japsn. [Itoi and Lee] This is a particulksrly sensative topic in Korea. The South Korean Government estimates that Japanese authorities removed more than 75,000 cultural assets from Korea.

Political Structure

The Japanese ended centurie old Joseon monarchy and dismissed the hierarchy. They proceeded to destroy a great deal of the Gyeongbokgung palace. They replaced it with their Government office building. From there the Japanese appointed Governor General ruled Korea by degree without any legal limitations on his powers. Army generals were chosen for the position. One of the most important was Gen. Kazushige Ugaki. He was an important Army commander rising to Minister of war and almost primeminister. He played an important role in the Army's rise to comntrol the prlimentary government. He developed, hoever, enemies in the army because he was not radical enough as Minister of War. He was appointed Governor General of Korea, first briefly (1927). During his second, longer service as governor-general (1931-36), Ugaki focused on developing the colony's industrial base, primarily in the north where most of the raw materils were located. His concentration was on heavy industry and munitions. He reportedly had ties to the zaibatsu businesses as part of the Korean industrialization program. Ugaki felt that industry supporting the Army would be strategically placed for a war with China, which he considered inevitable. [Pratt] He proved correct in this regard. In addition, the Japanese-built ondustry in North Korea proved the only segmet of Japanese inditry byond the range of American strategic bombing during the Pacufic War.

Modernization

Korean was a very backword country at the time of annexation. The Japanese set about establishing a modern transport and communication system The purpose was very practical. These systems were needed if Japan was going to efficdently exploit Korea, both its people and resources.

Finance

The Japanese consolidated the existing banking system. As part od annexation, they simply abolished the Korean currency

Property Seizures

Authorities seized both land and harvests from Korean farmers. There was no recourse under the law.

Supression of Civil Liberties

Emperor Gojong, the last Joseon monarch, died (January 1919). Rumors circulated tht the Japanese had poisoned him. Koreans participating in pro-independence rallies (March 1, 1919). Students were especially active in the movement which became knon as the March 1st Movement. Some 2 million Koreans may have partivcipated in what were peaceful rallies. The movement was at least in part influenced by American President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and a speech he delivered expressing support for right of self-determination and an end to colonial rule. [Lee Ki-baik, pp. 340–344.] Wilson was speaking about European colonial rule, but there were obvious similarities to Japanese colonialism. The Japanese police and Army opened fire on the protestors. Some 7,000 people were killed. More were arrested and imprisoned.

Government in Exile (1920-48)

Korean ex-patriots after the Japanese supression of the March 1st Movement, organized The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (PGRK) in Shanghai, China. The PGRK coordinated the Liberation effort and resistance against Japanese domination of Korea. The PGRK's first important action of any consequence was the Battle of Chingshanli / Qingshanli (1920). This was an engagement fought between the Japanese Army and Korean armed groups in a densely wooded region of eastern Manchuria called Qīngshānlǐ north of Korea. The PGRK also organized attacks on Japanese military commnbders in China (1932). Military Leadership in China in 1932. This was during the flare up of violence against the Japanese in China after the Japanese seizure of Chinese Manchuria. The PGRK is considered by Korean historians as the de jure government of the Korean people between 1919 and 1948. Its legitimacy in Korean law is is enshrined in the preamble to the constitution of the Republic of Korea.

Resistance

The strength of Japanese police and military occupation as well as the brutality of Japanese rule made resistance very difficult in Korea itself. An unknown number of Koreans opposed to Japanese rule left Korea to Manchuria and Primorsky Krai (Soviet Maritine Province). Koreans in Manchuria formed poorly organized resistance bands known as Dongnipgun (Liberation Army). They moved across the Sino-Korean border, engaging in guerrilla attacks on Japanese forces. This appears to have been a minor activity, but we hve few details. Soviet autorities appeared to have prevented suh action. They did organize a Communist group among the exiles. Resistnce efforts intensified during the Pacific war as prospects for defeating Japan and liberstion increased (1940s). The Korean Liberation Army participated in the fighting in China, but not to any extent in Korea itself. One siurce claims that tens of thousands of Koreans joined the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army and the Chinese National Revolutionary Army so theu could fight the Jspanese.

Education

Missionaries

Interesyingly, the Japanese in the early colonial period did not expell Christian missionaries. Chistinity gradually became associate with resistance to Japanese domination. Protestant (Evangelicalist) Christian missionaries proved very sucessful in Korea, especiually after the Japanese annexation. American Presbyterian and Methodist missionaries who had been active in China, reached Korea (1880s). They were well received. The Joseon monarch did not restrict their activities and they did not encounter the ire of Korean nationlists who were most concened ith the Japanese. After Japanese annexation, expresion of Korean nationlism became increasingly difficult. Christianity became ironically a kind of expression of Korean nationsism that was tolerated. Christian services wrevnormslly conducted in Korean and thus a way to resist Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion. [Kane and Park] Korea had a population of about 16 million peole at the time of annexation with less than 0.2 million Vhristians, evcenly divided beteen Protestants and Caholics. The number of Christisns during Jpanese rule had doubled to more tha 0.3 million (1934). Presbyterian missionaries were the most successful as they were able to harmonize Christian theology with traditional practices. The Protestants were able to develop a link with deeply hld Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary concepts,

Value to Japan

Korea was not only important strategically to China, but it had important natural resources. Raw materials in the north served as a basis for industry which Japan promoted. The agricultural south became an important source of rice and other agicultural products, although this declined over time as rice was needed to feed the expanding industrial work force in the north and the Japanese military occupation force.

Sources

Hoare, James and Susan Pares. Korea: an introduction (New York: Routledge, 1988).

Itoi, Kay and B.J. Lee. "Korea: A tussle over treasures: Who rightfully owns Korean artifacts looted by Japan?" Newsweek (October 17, 2007).

Kane, Danielle and Jung Mee Park, "The puzzle of Korean Christianity: Geopolitical networks and religious conversion in early twentieth-century East Asia," American Journal of Sociology (2009) Vol. 115, No. 2, pp 365-404.

Lee Ki-baik. A New History of Korea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984).

Pratt, Keith. Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea (Reaktion Books: 2007).

Navigate the CIH Related Country History Pages:
[Return to the Main Korean history page]
[Return to the Main country history page]
[China] [Japan] [Mongoliad] [Philippines] [Russia] [Taiwan] [Tibet] [United States] [Vietnam]

Crerated: 9:36 PM 12/7/2014
Last updated: 9:37 PM 12/7/2014