ÿþ<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Final//EN"> <HTML> <head> <title> war and social upheaval: World War II Guerilla Campaign in the Balkans Yugoslavia </title> <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1"> <meta name="title" content=" World War II Guerilla Campaign in the Balkans Yugoslavia " > <link rel="shortcut icon" href="/imagef/gif/faviconh.ico"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/imagef/gif/faviconh.ico"> <META NAME="Description" CONTENT="We note boys during the late 19th and early 20th century wearing large collars both with and without different styles of bows. It seems to us that it was most common to wear bows, but we see quite a number of boys without bows as well. A good example is an unidentified American boy</a>, perhaps in the 1870s. There were differences among countries as to the popularity of bows, but we do not yet have any detailed information as to fashion conventions as to wearing or not wearing them. A good example of a bow wearing a fancy blouse without a bow is a Canadian boy in 1897. We are not sure at this time what was involved in a mother's choice to use a bow or not. We have not yet been able to identify any social-class, regional, national, or other factors which may have affected this choice. As far as we can tell it just depended on the individual fashion sence of the mother involved. Perhaps some of our readers will be able to offer some insights here. We are hoping that the subject may be addressed in period fashion magazines. With photos and text. "> <META NAME="KeyWords" CONTENT="America, United States, American, bow, bows, floppy bows, conventions, prevalence, boy, boys, children, girl, girls, school uniform, garments, Fauntleroy suits, Fauntleroy blouses, tunic suits, caps, military, tunics, sailor suits, shirts, history, historical, fashion, "> </head> <BODY BGCOLOR="#000066" TEXT="#FFFF00" LINK="#FF0000" ALINK="#FFFF00 "VLINK="#99CCFF"> <br> <br> <img src="/imagef/gif/cih-pur.png"> <br> <br> <HR> <br> <br> <br> <br> <center><h1>Yugoslav Guerilla Campaign: Military Operations (1941-45)</h1></center> <table border=0 width=50% align=right cellpadding=20> <tbody> <tr> <td> <table border=5 width=95% align=right bgcolor=##7f00ff" bordercolor="FFFF00"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <IMG SRC="/image/date/2006/12/10/ypart01s.jpg"></a> <hr> <i>Figure 1.-- These boys werevin the 19th Division of the Partizan Army. Here they are manning a highwat control point in 1944. At the tine the Division was involved in operations liberaring Istra (part of pre-War Italy) and Dalmatia (seized by Italy). Notice how well uniformed the Partisans are. Also note the boy has both a sub-machine gun and a pistol. Also notice the sun glasses. (Tito was very fashion conscious and liked elaborate uniforms and sun glasses.) The Germans which seized Yugoslavia with the loss of only about 100 men eventually had to commit over a million men to the Balkans campaign. </i> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <p> Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union were the only two countries which were the Resistance was able to carry out sustained military opertions against the NAZIs. The Partisans initiated small-scale attacks on the occupiers (July 1941). They achieved some localized success and liberated areas of western Serbia (October 1941). They declared the Republic of U~ice. The NAZIs launched an offensive to restablish control of the area (November 1941). Much of the Partisan force managed to escape into Bosnia. At this time the tenous cooperation between the Parisans and Chetniks to disolve into actual fighting. The Partisans formed the 1st Proletarian Brigade (December 22). This was the "regular" unit capable of conducting operations outside their own immediate area. Gradually the Partisans grew in strength and organized more roubust forces capable of larger-scale attacks. These and other regular units and partisan detachments merged into the PLA/PDY (NOV i POJ) (1942). The partisans in Dalmatia even a naval unit using the many fishing boats (September 1942). They were eventually able to launch atacks on the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine as well as limited amphibious operations. The Partisans launched air attacks (May 1942). Two Croatian NDH pilots (Franjo Kluz i Rudi Cajevec) defected to the partisans in Bosnia. The limited facilities in Partisan controlled areas made this a short-term action. Partisans were later able to launch sustained air operations (1944). The British Royal Air Force provided aircraft, equipment and training. The NAZIs became increasingly focused on the growing Partisan strength. The Chetniks began to see them as a greater threat than the NAZIS and Italians. The NAZIs launched seven major anti-partisan Offensives. The most important were combined Wehrmacht, SS )including Bosnian and Kosovo Muslims), Fascist Italy, Ustaae, Chetniks and Bulgarian operations. These included the 4th Offensive, the Fall Weiss (Plan White) or the Battle of Neretva and the 5th Operation, Schwarz (Black) or the Battle of Sutjeska. NAZI defeats outside the Balkans undermined the German militaqry situation in Yugoslavia during 1943. The Soviet victory at Kursk (July 1943) allowed them to regain the Ukraine and then prepare an offensive into the Balkans. The Allies invaded Italy (September 1943). The Italians surrendered. The NAZIs seized control of Italy and resisted the Allied invasion. They also seized control of the Italian occupation areas in Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia. Before accomplishing this, some Italian units went over to the Partisans or provided them substatial quantities of arms and supplies. This meant that the Wehrmacht occupation forces were more severly strached than ever and faced a much netter armed Partisan force. The military situation in the Balkans changed dramtically (1944). The Soviets liberated Romania and Bulgaria. This put them in position to attack into Yugoslavia. NAZI reverses on the Eastern Front and the D-Day landings in the West forced the Wehrmacht to begin withdrawing from Greece and Yugoslavia. The Allied victories in Italy also provided air bases which could support the Partisans. Much of the Partisan struggke had been fought in Bosnia since fall of the Republic of U~ice in 1941. The Partisans began the liberatiin of Serbia (mid 1944). A joint Partisan-Red Army offensive liberated Belgrade (October 1944). The Patisans soon controlled eastern Yugoslavia (Serbia, Vardar Macedonia and Montenegro, as well as parts of Croatia--the Dalmatian coast (December 1944). This left Slovenia and much of Croatia in NAZI hands. The Partisan's final offensive defeated the combined Ustaae and Wehrmacht forces, The Partisans broke through at Syrmia. They took Sarajevo (April 1945). The remainder of Croatia and Slovenia fell (mid-May 1945). They then liberated Rijeka and Istria which had been part of Italy before the war. Finally they moved on Trieste, arrivung a day before the Allies. Trieste would prove a bone of contention in the post-War settlement. <br> <h2><a href="/essay/war/ww2/camp/eur/balk/balk-gyi.html">NAZI Invasion</a> (April 1941)</h2> <p> The NAZI Blitzkrieg on Yugoslavia succeeded in only 10 days. I do not fully understand how they could have been so successful. The assault began with ashattering air assault on Belgrade. One factor was ethnic divisions within the country, especially in Croatia. But Serb resistabce was also ineffective. Certainly the Germans had overwealming force, but still 12 days seems startling. The Yugoslav Army surrendered (April 17). Various parts of Yugoslsavia were occupied by different Axis invading armies. The bulk of the actual fighting was done by the German Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe. But Germany;s Axis parners were awarded a share of defeated Yugoslavia. The Germans occupied Serbia and Slovenia. The Italians took parts of Croatia (Dalmatia), Montenegro and Slovenia. The Bulgarians took Macedonia. The Hungarians occupied Vojvodina. The later tried to enter in Croatia but were expelled. Te Croatians declared their independence (April 10). This was acceptable to the NAZIs and Fascists which had been supporting local Fascists before the War. <br> <h2>Republic of U~ice (July-October 1941)</h2> <p> Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union were the only two countries which were the Resistance was able to carry out sustained military opertions against the NAZIs. The Partisans initiated small-scale attacks on the occupiers (July 1941). They achieved some localized success and liberated areas of western Serbia (October 1941). They declared the Republic of U~ice. <br> <h2>NAZI Offensive (November 1941)</h2> <p> The NAZIs launched an offensive to restablish control of the area (November 1941). Much of the Partisan force managed to escape into Bosnia. <br> <h2>Partisans and Chetniks</h2> <p> At this time the tenous cooperation between the Parisans and Chetniks to disolve into actual fighting. <br> <h2>Partisan Military Units </h2> <p> The Partisans formed the 1st Proletarian Brigade (December 22). This was the "regular" unit capable of conducting operations outside their own immediate area. Gradually the Partisans grew in strength and organized more roubust forces capable of larger-scale attacks. These and other regular units and partisan detachments merged into the PLA/PDY (NOV i POJ) (1942). The partisans in Dalmatia even a naval unit using the many fishing boats (September 1942). They were eventually able to launch atacks on the Italian Navy and Kriegsmarine as well as limited amphibious operations. The Partisans launched air attacks (May 1942). Two Croatian NDH pilots (Franjo Kluz i Rudi Cajevec) defected to the partisans in Bosnia. The limited facilities in Partisan controlled areas made this a short-term action. Partisans were later able to launch sustained air operations (1944). The British Royal Air Force provided aircraft, equipment and training. <br> <h2>Anti-Partisan Offensives (1942-43)</h2> <p> The NAZIs became increasingly focused on the growing Partisan strength. The Chetniks began to see them as a greater threat than the NAZIS and Italians. The NAZIs launched seven major anti-partisan Offensives. The most important were combined Wehrmacht, SS )including Bosnian and Kosovo Muslims), Fascist Italy, Ustaae, Chetniks and Bulgarian operations. These included the 1) 4th Offensive, 2) the Fall Weiss (Plan White) or the Battle of Neretva and 3) the 5th Operation, Schwarz (Black) or the Battle of Sutjeska. <br> <h2>Overall Military Situation</h2> <p> NAZI defeats outside the Balkans undermined the German militaqry situation in Yugoslavia during 1943. The Soviet victory at Kursk (July 1943) allowed them to regain the Ukraine and then prepare an offensive into the Balkans. The Allies invaded Italy (September 1943). This compromised the German position in the Balkans and as the Soviets advanced increased the danger of cutting off the Germans in the Balkans from the Reich. <br> <h2>Italian Surender (September 1943)</h2> <p> The Italians surrendered (September 1943). Hitler had not trusted the Italians and had German forces prepared. The NAZIs seized control of Italy and resisted the Allied invasion of the Italian peninsula. The Germans also seized control of the Italian occupation areas in Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia. This had several adverse consequences for the Germans. Before accomplishing this, some Italian units went over to the Partisans or provided them substatial quantities of arms and supplies. This meant that the Wehrmacht occupation forces were more severly streached than ever and faced a much better armed Partisan force. <br> <h2><a href="/essay/war/ww2/camp/eur/balk/yug/lib/w2y-lib.html">Liberation of Yugoslavia</a> (1944-45)</h2> <p> Unlike the rest of Eastern Europe, the Yugoslavs were actually liberated rather than exchanging NAZI for Soviet tyranny. It was the Communist Partisans that suceeded in liberting Yugoslavia, but largely because the Soviet Red rmy and the Western Allies sucessfully demolished the German war machine. Even so, the war in Yigoslavia was the most complicated of all the World war II beligerants, because it was three wars in one. The first war was the war between the Facscist occupiers (Germny and Italy) and Yugoslavia. The second war was the vicious war between the the various ethnic groups in Yugoslvia (Croats, Muslims, Slovenes, Serbs, and others) as well as the NAZI Holocaust aginst the Jews). The third war was ovr the future of the country fought out between the different resistanbce groups, primarily the multi-ethnic Communist Partisans and the Serb-dominted Royalist Chetniks. the Partisans emerged the victors becuse they were able to generate broad multi-ethnic appeal and they were able to obtain support from both the Soviets and Western Allies. The Partisans managed to liberate substantial areas of the country (1943). It was the Allied destruction of the German 7th Army in France (July 1944) and the Soviet destruction of Army Group Center in Poland (June-August 1944) that made possible the liberation of the Balkans. With the Reich itseld threatened, OKS ordered a withdrawl from the Balkans as the Red Army advance into Romania threatened to cut off German forces (September 1944). Even Hitler could not disagree. The withdrawl began in secret from Greece, but was in full swing by October. There were not any major bttles as the Germans were intent on one thing, withdrawing north and getting back to the Reich. The Germans fought only if attacked by the Partisans or were in danger of being cut off. he Partisans with Red Army assiatance liberated Belgrade (October 20). The Yugoslav Partisans were thus able to expel the Axis from Serbia (Fall and Winter 1944) and the north of Yugoslavia (Spring 1945. The Red Army provided some limited assistance, especilly with the liberation of Belgrade and unlike the rest of Eastern Europe, withdrew after the war. The Partisans linked up with the advancing Allied forces bryond the borders of pre-War Yugoslabia (May 1945). The Partisans had moved into Trieste and parts of the southern Austrian provinces of Styria and Carinthia. The Partisans withdrew from Trieste (June 1945). <br> <h2>Sources</h2> <p> <p> Springer, Zvonko. "<a href="http://www.cosy.sbg.ac.at/%7Ezzspri/faq/D-Day50thAnniv.html">D-DAY's 50th Anniversary</a>" (February 23, 1994). <br> <br> <br> <br> <! This left most of Croatian population behind except those who choose to retreat through Slovenia on there a way to Austria. Everybody expected to get through to the American or British armed forces before being caught by the Partisans or JNA units, or captured from Russians or Bulgarians. The later two armies were along the left bank of the river Drava already. Nobody in this exodus expected anything good from the victorious armies particularly from those under Communist leadership. At the beginning the British allowed and accepted the surrender of the armed Serb Cetniks, withdrawing side by side with their worst foes the Ustasas. Then came White Gardists from Slovenia and the Cossack's units, who fought under German command against Russian army. The German Army surrendered since the day of Armistice of the 8th May already. They expected to be treated as Prisoners of War as stipulated by the Geneva Conventions. Next came the Croatian civilians and some Domobran units as well as their counterparts of the Ustaska Vojnica. Last not least were in the retreat the remaining or late coming Ustasas some of who were the worst ones and called the "butchers". The later, lead by their "colonels" Boban and Luburic were known as the most merciless and fearsome fighters. These "black" Ustasas, because of their black uniforms, fought their way westwards killing off anybody who was in their way. These were either that who wanted to return and surrender to the JNA or those who prevented their fast progress towards the safety of a surrender to the Allied Forces. Thus many lost their lives by their own kin and became post-war victims during the first few weeks of the Peace in Europe. From the front of the retreating Croatian column rumor spread that the British were turning over captured Croatians to the JNA units. Some of these units did also cross Drava already and penetrated the Austrian part of Carinthia. There they confronted the British units near Klagenfurt on the 8th May already. The Croatians and other captives repatriated by the British were massacred near Bleiburg by JNA units on 13th May. This terrible news spread like wildfire stopping many Croatians in their further marching westwards. Those still at this side of Drava south bank surrendered to the JNA around the 15th May. Some more, most of them Ustasas, would try their luck proceeding further upriver beyond Dravograd and Prevalje, opposite of Bleiburg. Few of the later ones succeeded to surrender to the British whose commanders changed their attitude because of their "bad experience" with JNA of Bleiburg. My personal account describes the period from 13th April 1945 the day the 1st Battery started the retreat from Osijek. The following battery withdrawal went along the river Drava's right bank westwards through Slavonia and the northern part of Croatia, proceeding into Slovenia after the 8th May and arriving short of Dravograd on 14th May. At the night of 14th May, in a hopeless situation, it remained the only chance to stay alive to return and surrender to the JNA units. This happened at the midnight of the 14th May. The next day of the 15th some 40.000 Prisoners of War were herded up in a camp at Slovenjgradec. On the 17th started the long and deadly march in which I was a captive. I had to walk some 500 km, most of it barefoot, in 17 days only. This is longest path No. 2 of the total 4 so-called "Croatian Death Marches". To talk about this theme was a TABOO in ex-Yugoslavia.) At last, a small group of former Domobran officers reached Osijek on 2nd June. A period of varying life conditions as a POW followed. There was one of the possibilities to undergo a "re-education" before deserving to join the JNA units. It was a lie and political farce of the new political regime: Tito's and communist's dictatorship. After some less dangerous and trying events I joined some former and other Domobran's officers in a POW camp in Kovin, at Far East of Yugoslavia. On 3rd August 1945 the General Amnesty and Pardon was proclaimed and the prisoners could return to their homes. The account ends with 15th August 1945, on the day when I returned home at Osijek after four months of absence. 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