Figure 1.--After seizing Manchuria (1931), the Japanese wanted Shanghai to the south, the richest and most important city in China. The situation in the city was tense because of Chinese resentment toward the Japanese aggression in Manchuria. Events are murky, but it is widely believed that the Japanese helped stage violence that could be used to justify intervention. Japanese carrier aircraft began bombing the city (January 28, 1932). Most Europeans lived in the largely British Shanghai Intentional Settlement (SIS) which the Japanese attempted to avoid. Even so, the violence convinced many Europeans to leave. Here we see British and other Europeans departing the city by sea.

While the Chinese Nationalist KMT Army did not intervene in Manchuria, the Chinese people were outraged at the Japanese. The Japanese were increasingly resented in China and the seizure of Manchuria was only confirmation of what the Chinese already widely suspected. There were demonstrations and protests throughout China. Anti-Japanese disturbances broke out in Shanghai. And there were attacks on Japanese citizens. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) used these attacks and other instances of resistance to justify a military action in Shanghai which was the financial center of China and because of its location at the mouth of the Yangtze River dominated a huge area of central China. Complicating the situation was the Chinese 19th Route Army deployed outside the city. This was essentially a war lord force which the Shanghai Municipal Council feared as much as the Japanese. The Japanese set off this powder keg by attacking the city in what they called the Shanghai Incident (January 1932). The Japanese who had been massing naval forces off Shanghai, bombed the city to quell the claimed disturbances (January 28). Thus the fighting is also called the January 28 Incident. It was the first use of carrier aircraft in an military engagement. The Japanese claimed that their nationals resident in Shanghai were endangered. The city had no air defense or bomb shelters. There was no effort to hit military targets because they were so few. This was the first of many Japanese terror bombings of civilian populations. The Japanese when they attacked Shanghai, avoided hitting the International Settlement (SIS). Chinese fleeing the fighting attempted to get into the International sector for safety because the Japanese bombing was so indiscriminate. The British had to close off the SIS becuse supplies did not exist to provide for the refugees. Groups in America provided some relief aid. Press reports and wire photos of the devastated city and civilians appeared in newspapers around the world. This profoundly affected the Japanese image both in Europe and more importantly the United States perhaps more significantly than Manchuria bcause Europeans were more directly involved and the violence so well covered. The International Settlement in the 1930s found itself in the middle of the bloody battle between the Nationalists and the Japanese. The Nationalists were out gunned by the Japanese who were supported by Japanese naval vessels in the harbor. They put up a fight for the city. Only the SIS remained untouched. Chinese tried to get unto the SIS for safety. Eventually a ceasefire was negotiated. This resulted in the demilitarization of Shanghai. The Chinese KMT were prohibited from deploying troops in the city, but could have a police force. The Japanese were allowed a small force of Marines. The action is called the First Shanghai Incident because when the Japanese invaded China (July 1937), Shanghai was a major target. The Nationalist Army surprised the Japanese by putting up a tough fight for the city, sometimes called the Second Shanghai Incident (August-November 1937).

Japanese Seizure of Manchuria (1931)

Japan had long desired to expand in East Asia. Its primary historic target, reflecting the geography of East Asia, was Korea (1909). After fabricating the Mukden Incident. The Japanese invaded and seized Manchuria (Northern China) with its rich mineral resources and farm land. Korea had been only a client sate of Japan. Manchuria was an actual part of China. The Japanese bombed several cities in Manchuria. The League of Nations was created to prevent such aggression, but League action was futile. Japan simply withdrew from the League. The bombing of Chinese cities would continue for a decade, until the American Flying Tigers intervened (1942). The Japanese penchant for brutality was part of this first aggression leading to World War II. The Chinese Nationalist KMT Army, however, did not intervene in Manchuria. Chiang understood the limits of the Nationalist Army and the capabilities of the Japanese. The Chinese people were outraged at the Japanese, but did not understand China's limited military power. The Japanese were increasingly resented in China and the seizure of Manchuria was only confirmation of what the Chinese already widely suspected. There were demonstrations and protests throughout China.

Shanghai

Shanghai began as a small agricultural village and market town. . Over time with technological advances in agriculture and waterway management it became a county capital (13th century). China was not a major player in international trade. Foreigners did not have a lot to offer China. The trade that occurred after the arrival of the Europeans (16th century)was primarily financed with Spanish silver--the Manila Galleon Trade delivering bullion fro Mexico and Peru. Shanghai only became an important international trading hub after the First Opium War and the signing of the Treaty of Nanking (1842). This opened the the city to Western trade. Shanghai as it developed was divided into three sections: the International Settlement, the French Concession, and the Chinese city. It became the primary commercial and financial hub of Asia, becoming known as 'Paris of the East' (20th century). Shanghai was China's principal port and its location close to the capital of Peking made it strategically the most important city in China. It was at the mouth of the Yangtze River which mean that that goods from China flowed down Yangtze to Shanghai. Foreign goods landed at Shanghai flowed up the Yangtze into the Chinese interior. This exchange made Shanghai the most important and richest city in China. It began to look like an European city with stately buildings. And Japan wanted it, but the European involvement made the Japanese hesitate, at least in 1931. They at first limited their incursion to Manchuria (1931), but did bomb Shanghai (1932).

Chinese and Japanese Rioting (1932)

The anti-Japanese disturbances which erupted in Shanghai came about 4 months after the Japanese seizure of Manchuria. They are also known as the 'January 28th Incident'. The disturbances erupted from the escalating tensions between China and Japan because of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931). The result was clashes between Chinese citizens and Japanese residents in Shanghai. This occurred because there were more Japanese in Shanghai than any other Chinese city. People in Shanghai organized protests and boycotts against Japanese products. Boycotters urged Chinese merchants, sometimes compelled them, to not deal in Japanese goods, under threat of seizure and even imprisonment. Then a Shanghai newspaper published derogatory comments about Japanese Emperor Hirohito (January 1932). Only a few days later, actual attacks on Japanese people in Shanghai began. Five Japanese Buddhist priests were attacked on the street after shouted anti-Chinese slogans (January 18). Buddhist monk suggest individuals with peaceful mind sets. They were actually members of an ardently nationalist sect. One of the one monks was killed and two injured. In response to this action, the Japanese in the Japanese area of Shanghai rioted and burned down a factory, killing two Chinese. 【Hoyt, p. 98.】 The Japanese rioted when the Chinese police arrived. . Several people on both sides were injured. 【Smith-Hutton】 All of this led to larger-scale Chinese protests demanding stronger boycotts. 【Treat】 The Japanese civilians demanded that troops be landed.

Japanese Reaction: The First Shanghai Incident

The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) used these attacks and other instances of resistance to justify a full-scale military action. Shanghai was the financial center of China and because of its location at the mouth of the Yangtze River dominated a huge area of central China. Complicating the situation was the Chinese 19th Route Army deployed outside the city. This was essentially a war lord force which the Shanghai Municipal Council feared as much as the Japanese. The Japanese set off this powder keg by attacking the city in what they called the 'Shanghai Incident' (January 1932). Notice the term 'incident'. This would be used by the Japanese in China rather than war. If war was declared, it would trigger being American neutrality laws. This could result in trade sanctions, possible embargoes--something that would damage he Japanese economy. The Japanese who had been massing naval forces off Shanghai, bombed the city to quell the claimed disturbances (January 28). Thus the fighting is also called the 'January 28 Incident'. It was the first use of carrier aircraft in an military engagement. The Japanese claimed that their nationals resident in Shanghai were endangered. The Chinese 19h Route Army engaged the Japanese.

Chinese Civilians

Japan’s aggression aroused strong patriotic anti-Japanese resentment throughout China. This was especially the case in the cities where the population was more politicized. This was especially he case in the large metropolitan areas of Shanghai and Canton. Shanghai was a special case because of the large number of Japanese residents. Most of the Japanese lived in the Hongkew and Yangtzepoo sections of Shanghai--Little Tokyo. It was in this area hat the Japanese landed a naval force armed as infantry. hey moved into the Chines area of Chapei. His was a huge mistake. By initiating a campaign in an urban area involving street to street fighting, the Japanese gave up the many advantages they had over the lightly armed Chinese forces. The result was World War I like trench warfare. There were heavy Japanese losses and little movement forward. 【Smith-Hutton】 Here werealso heavy Chinese civilian casualties. Chinese civilians also suffered heavily from Japanese aerial bombardment. The city had no air defense or bomb shelters. There was no effort to hit military targets because they were so few. he Japanese simply bombed Chinese areas oF the city. Many Chinese were injured and killed. A single bomb killed 123 people and wounded some thousand. This was the first of many Japanese terror bombings of civilian populations. The Japanese when they attacked Shanghai, avoided hitting the International Settlement (SIS). Chinese fleeing the fighting attempted to get into the International sector for safety because the Japanese bombing was so indiscriminate. The British had to close off the SIS because supplies did not exist to provide for the refugees.

International Reaction

Western reaction to the Japanese invasion of Manchuria was muted, largely because there was not a large Western presence there. Press reports and film footage did nor reach the West in quantity. Press reports and wire photos of devastated Shanghai city and civilian casualties appeared in newspapers around the world. This profoundly affected the Japanese image both in Europe and more importantly the United States. The impact was far greater than with Manchuria bcause Europeans were more directly involved and the violence so well covered. Shanghai was different. The city was full of Americans and Europeans. Detailed press reports appeared as front-page articles and graphic film footage dominated the weekly newsreels. This was when Western attitudes toward the Japanese began to change markedly. Te image change from a quaint, polite Oriental nation making tin toys and devoted to artistic pursuits and cheery blossoms to an aggressor nation bombing cities and murdering innocent women and children. Groups in America provided some relief aid. br>

The International Settlement

Shanghai expanded as it grew economically. What had been a village grew into a bustling city. The Europeans eventually joined by the Japanese carved up the city into autonomous concessions administered primarily by the British, but with the French, Americans, and others participating. This was all completely beyond Chinese law and administration. Each foreign presence impacted the culture, architecture, and society within the International Settlement (SIS). A major change occurred as the Japanese presence grew. The Japanese set up a largely separate enclave in Hongkew. This was theoretically within the SIS, but after the seizure of Manchuria and the rise of anti-Japanese feeling, responsibility for security in Hiongkew was assumed by Japanese naval troops. There was also the separate French area. In addition there was also the "Outside Roads" (越界筑路). This was Chinese territories were controlled and administrated by SIS authorities. The initial plans for the SIS was to exclude the Chinese. This did not prove practical because the foreigners wanted to hire Chinese as both family servants and workers. Thus large numbers of Chinese were granted residency in the SIS. And the SIS attracted the Chinese both because it was a refuge from the civil strife which was sweeping China and because there were not only well paying jobs, but business opportunities. Shanghai became known as 'The Paris of the East'. It was not only an economic powerhouse , but a cultural center as well, a city of both vice and indulgence. The International Settlement in the 1930s found itself in the middle of the bloody battle between the Nationalists and the Japanese. The Nationalists were out gunned by the Japanese who were supported by Japanese naval vessels in the harbor. They put up a fight for the city. Only the SIS remained untouched. Chinese tried to get unto the SIS for safety.

Ceasefire

Eventually a ceasefire was negotiated. This resulted in the demilitarization of Shanghai. The Chinese KMT were prohibited from deploying troops in the city, but could have a police force. The Japanese were allowed a small force of Marines. The action is called the First Shanghai Incident because when the Japanese invaded China (July 1937), Shanghai was a major target. The Nationalist Army surprised the Japanese by putting up a tough fight for the city, sometimes called the Second Shanghai Incident (August-November 1937).

Sources

Hoyt, Edwin P. (1986). Japan's War (McGraw-Hill: 1986)

Smith-Hutton, H.H. "Lessons learned at Shanghai in 1932," U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (August 1938), Vol. 64, No. 8/426.

Treat, Payson J. "Shanghai, January 28, 1932" Pacific Historical Review (SEptember 1940) Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 337–43.

Created: 1:13 PM 3/11/2016
Last updated: 7:35 AM 12/6/2024