Figure 1.--These Hitler Youth boys and a SA Stromtrooper wanted to have their photograph taken next to the town's anti-Jewish sign. The sign reads, 'Juden sind in Behringersdorf nicht erwünscht,' meaning 'Jews not welcomed in Behringersdorf'. This was a small town near Nuremberg. The photograph is not dated, but looks like it was taken in the late-1930. The dealer thought it was taken in 1940.

Anti-Jewish signs began a common feature in NAZI Germany. There were two kinds of signs, municipal and individual business/public facility signs. Signs saying 'Juden nicht erlaubt' (Jews not allowed) or 'Juden sind nicht erwünscht' (Jews not welcomed) often with the name of the town added begin appearing throughout Germany. Some were posted outside towns and villages. These might be villages without any Jews or with only a few. The impact along with other harassing actions was to drive isolated Jewish families out of villages. The signs became a matter of civic pride. And municipal authorities could use these signs to demonstrate their loyalty to the regime. This was all part of a generalized effort to make Germany a place where Jews felt not only unwanted and even endangered so as to encourage them to leave. How would Jewish parents explain such signs to their children? We eventually begin to see signs 'Juden frei' (Jew free). Others in cities are placed on the windows and doors of restaurants and shops (May 1935). Signs were also placed on park benches as well as facilities like beaches. Here the NAZIs were following practices common in the American South restricting the access of Blacks in public facilities. (American precedents were also important in the NAZI eugenics program.) Some signs had been posted before, but the number of signs posted in May throughout Germany show that this was a centrally organized campaign with several agencies involved. We assume it was done through the NAZI Party apparatus. The fact that many were temporarily taken down during the 1936 Summer Olympics (August 1936) shows that some central authority was involved. This was part of an overall decision which must have been cleared with Hitler personally. The NAZI Government toned down both its public anti-Jewish rhetoric and activities. Here Propaganda Minister Goebbels must have been involved. Hitler apparently realized that international criticism could result in the transfer of the Games to another country. And at the time he was intent on using the Olympics to show case the new Germany. Such a loss would have been a serious blow to German prestige that at this stage Hitler coveted. And there was also the matter of international tourism and the revenue associated with it, one of the potential benefits of hosting the Olympics. The signs went right back up after the Olympics. Many were not taken down. The public signs were erected by NAZI controlled municipal authorities. These were more than an effort to humiliate and belittle Jews, they were part of the process of marginalizing and separating Jews from German society. In addition, Jews who ignored the signs could be subject to arrest. Jewish children were inviting attacks by Hitler Youth or other children especially when there were only a few Jewish children in a community or school.

Types of Signs

Anti-Jewish signs began a common feature in NAZI Germany. There were a wide range of temporary signs, such as those used in parades and demonstrations. There were three kinds of permanent signs, municipal (town and village) individual businesses, and public facility signs.

Parade signs

We notice a wide range of parade signs. This was an activity favored by the SA and seems a kind of localized activity. Jews, almost always men, were forced to march around city streets carry a wide range of humiliating anti- Semitic signs. One of the most famous was a sign Munich lawyer Dr. Michael Siegel was forced to carry. He had sought police help (March 1933). Not only did the police not help, but they turned him over to SA Stormtroopers instead who forced him to walk through the streets barefooted, with his pants cut short, and a shaved head. He had to carry a sign saying, 'I will not complain to the police anymore.' There were a wide range of other signs. One sign read "Auszug der Juden'. This means some like expel or away with the Jews. There were also more coordinated efforts, such as the boycotting of German shops. We notice the SA pulling shop owners out of their business and forcing them to carry signs such as 'Kauft nicht bei Juden . Kauft in deutschen Geschäften!' (Don't buy from Jews. Shop in German businesses!) Another sign read, '[first line illegible.] Gruelppnpaganda kauft ??? Deutscher ??? ??? Juden!" This was of course before the NAZI Aryanization programs seceded in stealing shops and other properties from Jews.

Municipal signs

Signs saying 'Juden nicht erlaubt' (Jews not allowed) or 'Juden sind nicht erwünscht' (Jews not welcomed) often with the name of the town added began appearing throughout Germany (May 1935). Some were posted outside towns and villages and were thus ordered by NAZI controlled municipal authorities. These might be villages without any Jews or with only a few. The impact along with other harassing actions was to drive isolated Jewish families out of villages. The signs became a matter of civic pride. And municipal authorities could use these signs to demonstrate their loyalty to the regime.

Business signs

Others in cities were placed on the windows and doors of restaurants, shops, movie theaters, and other private businesses. Some of these signs were put up by the shop owners because they held anti-Semitic beliefs. Many had Jewish competitors and only a few Jewish customers. In other cases the SA 'persuaded' them to put up the signs. We suspect that both were important, but have no actual information on the reltive importance of either. Other signs were put up by the SA. These of course were shops owned by Jews that they were encouraging shoppers to boycott. A typical sign put up by the SA along with painted stars of David and the word 'Jude' read “Protect Yourselves, Don’t Buy from Jews”. Another sign read, "Germans! Defend Yourselves! - Don't buy from Jews!" These signs began appearing at a very early period as a part of Goebbels' Boycott campaign (April 1933).

Public facilities

Municipal authorities began placing on park benches or even entire parks as well as facilities like beaches, theaters, libraries and other local muncipal facilities. e are not sure yet about the chronology of these signs. Webelieve that many went up after the issuance of the Nuremberg Race Laws (September 1935). Here the NAZIs were in part following practices common in the American South at the time restricting the access of Blacks in public facilities. (American precedents were also important in the NAZI eugenics program.) The American system was, however, different from the NAZI system. The American system of segregation was based on the principle of separate, but equal. This was imperfectly applied of course, but in facilities where there were 'white only' drinking fountains or benches, there was some effort to have comparable 'colored' facilities. Thus while facilities in parls and train statiins might be designated for whites and blacks, the facility itself was not closed to blacks. There might be separate seating areas such as in theaters, but blacks had access to the facilities, hwever unequal. This was not the case in Germany. A major difference wa that in America blacks were citizens, as a result of the Civil War enshirined in the Contitution. Jews after the issuance of the Nuremberg laws were no longer citizens and thus having aby legl protection. In Germany, Jews were simply excluded from a range of public facilities with no effort made to provide separate Jewish facilities. In fact because of the Nuremberg Laws, Jewish property was being seized, making it impossible to set up Jewish even private facilities such as camping areas for youth groups.

Chronology

We are not entirely sure about the chronology, but we begin to see these signs fairly early in the NAZI era. One source mentions many signs going up in May 1935. This was just before the issuance of the Nuremberg Race Laws which essentially made racial discrimination legal (September 1935). Some signs had been posted earlier, especially the signs in private shop windows, but we notice few references to them. The number of signs posted in May throughout Germany show that this was a centrally organized campaign. Most of the photographs we have found are not dated and do not indicate when the sign was erected. That is, however, only an estimate and in any case does not tell us when the local municipality ordered the sign be placed. We notice the signs even appearing in primary school books (1936). The photograph here loos to be dated to the late-30s because of the uniforms that the boys are wearing (figure 1).

Coordinating Agencies

Various German agencies had a hand in promoting these anti-Jewish signs. Some were directly involved. In other cases we do not have precise details as to how the effort was coordinated.

Kanzlei des Führers der NSDAP (KdF)

We do not yet have precise details, but we believe the effort to place the signs came from the top--the Kanzlei des Führers der NSDAP (Chancellery of the Führer of the Nazi Party--KdF). Almost certainly orders came through the KdF NAZI Party apparatus. The KdF should not be confused with the related, but separate Reich Chancellery, the seat of the NAZI Government. The KdF was the Party apparatus, both of course headed by Adolf Hitler. The leading figures in the KdF were Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess and his deputy Martin Bormann (who replace Hess when he flew to Scotland during the War). Much of the work of the KdF was, however, handled in Berlin by SS-Obergruppenführer Philipp Bouhler with the the title of Der Chef der Kanzlei des Führers der NSDAP. Working closely with Bouhler was Albert Bormann. Bouhler is best known for directing the deadly T4 Euthanasia program, essentially the first step in the killing phase of the Holocaust. The KdF operated as the as Hitler' private office, handling a wide range of matters. It could be used to issue instructions to Party authorities and clarifying policy issues. It also handled matters like complaints against party officials, appeals from Party courts, official judgements, clemency petitions, and Hitler's private affairs. hiswas the agency through which Hitler's contacts with the Gauleiters (essentially state governors) were coordinated. All of these matters coming before the KdF could be handled in secret away from public view unless so desired. It is here that orders to promote anti-Jewish signs must have come, although we do not know just who promoted the idea. One thing is certain, the idea must have been cleared at some stage by Hitler himself.

Propaganda Ministry

Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels using his ministry was the driving force behind the early effort to boycott Jewish shops and all the signs and publicity involved in the effort. Only months after the NAZIs seized power, Goebbels launched this campaign (April 1933). This was the first organized national effort taken against German Jews.

The Sturmabteilung (SA)

We see Sturmabteilung (SA) Stormtroopers putting up anti- Semitic posters or painting 'Jude' and stars of David on Jewish shop windows. They can also be seen driving Jews through the streets carrying a range of anti-Semitic signs in parades and demonstrations. Jews associated with or even married to German women were a popular target. Some of this seems to have been centrally organized such as the boycott effort. In other cases it seems more of an ad hoc local effort. The SA included some of the most vitriolic anti-Jewish element in the NAZI movement. In fact, many in the SA were dissatisfied when after seizing power, Hitler did not move more forcefully against the Jews. This inability to control th SA would be a factor in the Night of the Long Knives (1934). While the SA subsequently was no longer a major force in the NAZI movement, it still had many members and nothing prevented from participating in the steady stream of actions sanctioned taken against the Jews.

Olympic Games (August 1936)

The fact that many were temporarily taken down during the 1936 Summer Olympics (August 1936) shows that some central authority was involved. In fact, we know that Hitler was directly involved. He personally assured International Olympic Committee (IOC) chairman Count Henry Baillet-Latour that he would take down anti-Jewish signs during the 2 week period of the Olympics Games. ['Anti-Jewish signs ...'] This was part of an overall decision which was cleared with Hitler personally. The NAZI Government toned down both its public anti-Jewish rhetoric and activities. Here Propaganda Minister Goebbels must have been involved. Hitler apparently realized that international criticism could result in the transfer of the Games to another country. And at the time he was intent on using the Olympics to show case the new Germany. Such a loss would have been a serious blow to German prestige that at this stage Hitler coveted. And there was also the matter of international tourism and the revenue associated with it, one of the potential benefits of hosting the Olympics.

Resumed Program

The anti-Jewish signs went right back up after the Olympics. Many were never taken down. And new ones appeared. The Nuremberg ace Laws gave an added impetus to the effort. Under the Nuremberg Laws, Jews were no no longer citizens and thus denied basic civil rights. This they had no legal resource. Contrary to common perceptions, courts continued to operate in Germany and unless individuals got tied up with criticism or opposition to the regime, there were a wide range of civic rights which were still important. We know of no assessment as to how prevalent these signs were. As these signs are mentioned in a wide range of sources as well as many examples in the photographic record, they were clearly fairly common. We eventually begin to see signs 'Juden frei' (Jew free).

Purpose

These signs were more than an effort to humiliate and belittle Jews, although that was part of NAZI intentions. They were part of the overall process of marginalizing and separating Jews from German society. In addition, Jews who ignored the signs could be subject to arrest. Jewish children were inviting attacks by Hitler Youth or other children especially when there were only a few Jewish children in a community or school. This was all part of a generalized effort to make Germany a place where Jews felt not only unwanted and even endangered so as to encourage them to leave, both the local municipality or Germany altogether. How would Jewish parents explain such signs to their children?

Sources

"Anti-Jewish signs down for Olympics: Hitler promises to remove the placards during the winter and summer games," New York Times (November 6, 1935). Notice that even though the issue was raised nearly a year before the Olympics, Hitler also promised to have them taken down during the short period of the Olympics. And this satisfied the IOC.

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